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LiBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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The English Lai^guage. 



A BRIEF HISTORY OF ITS 



Grammatical Changes and its Yooabulary. 



WITH j:xercises on 



SYNONYMS, PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES, WORD-ANALYSIS 
AND WORD-BUILDING. 



A Text-Book for High Schooi^s and Colleges. 



BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., 

PBOFESSOB OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE BROOKLYN POLTTECHKIG: 

INSTITUTE, AUTHOR OF " A TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC," "A TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH 

LITERATURE," AND ONE OF THE AUTHORS OF " REED & KELLOGG'S 

GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH," "HIGHER LESSONS IN 

ENGLISH," AND »' ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH," 

AND 

ALONZO''REED, A.M., 

AUTHOR OF "introductory LANGUAGE WORK," " WORD LESSONS," AND ONE OF THE, 

AUTHORS OF "REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH," "HIGHER 

LESSONS IN ENGLISH," AND " ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH." 



NEW EDITION. V 

NEW YORK: / Cl73 ?( 

Maynard, Merrill, & Co., Publishers^ 
43, 45 & 47 East Tenth St. 
1893. 

K 






THE COMPLETE COUESE IN ENGLISH 
includes 
Heed's Introductory Language Work. 
Reed's Word Lessons— A Complete Speller. 
Reed & Kellogg's Graded Lessons in English. 
Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English. 
Reed & Kellogg's One-Book Course in English. 
Kellogg & Reed's Word-Building. 
Kellogg & Reed's The English Language. 
Kellogg's Rhetoric. 
Kellogg's English Literature. 
Kellogg's Editions of Shakespeare's Plays. 
The English Classic Series. 



Copyright, 1891, by 

Brainerd Kellogg and Alonzo Reed. 

Copyright, 1892, 

By Brainerd Kellogg and Alonzo Reed. 



Press of J. J. Little & Co.. 
Astor Place. New York 



PREFACE. 



Educated people are not agreed that it is well for the 
student to spend years in the study of Latin and Greeks 
but all agree that the English pupil should know his own 
tongue thoroughly. It is safe to say that there is a strong 
and growing inclination to give much less attention to the 
so-called classical languages^, and to concentrate attention 
upon English and other modern languages^ and upon the 
studies taught in English. If Latin is to be pursued at all, 
we are told that it should be because of its connection with 
our tongue, and the instruction in it should be made directly 
tributary to the pupiFs advancement in that tongue. 

Our language has its roots in the Anglo-Saxon and in the 
Latin. The Anglo-Saxon gives us our grammar and a large 
fraction of our vocabulary ; the Latin yields us a still greater 
number of words, and has modified our grammar. If, as 
w^e think, one must know something of the sources of a 
language, in order to know that language critically, then no 
one can be said to be well educated in English who is unac- 
quainted with the changes which the Anglo-Saxon grammar 
and words have undergone in becoming English, and who is 
unfamiliar with the meaning, and unskilled in the handling, 
of the prolific Latin roots from which, by the aid of prefixes 
and suffixes, such hosts of English derivatives have been 
formed. 



iv Preface, 

It is in such belief that this work has been planned and 
written. It gives a brief account of the early peoples that 
occupied Britain^ and of their contributions to our vocabu- 
lary. This account is followed by a history of the two great 
conquests — the Anglo-Saxon and the j^orman — and of the 
blending into our own of the tongues of these two races. 
The grammatical changes of the Anglo-Saxon noun^ adjec- 
tive^ pronoun^ and verb^ in passing into English^ are detailed. 
The two great elements of our vocabulary — the Anglo-Saxon 
and the Latin — and their functions in actual use^ are given 
and illustrated. Over two hundred groups of synonyms are 
carefully discriminated ; and in word-analysis and word- 
building we have dealt with at least two hundred and fifty 
of the most fruitful Latin^ Anglo-Saxon^ and Greek roots in 
our language. The meanings of the roots, and of the pre- 
fixes and suffixes combining with them, are easily learned. 
The mastery, thus attained, of multitudes of English com- 
pounds will be of the utmost service to the pupil in his 
reading of authors and in his own composition, and justifies 
the giving of so much time and space to word-analysis and 
word-building. 

We give the decisions of usage upon a dozen or more vital 
grammatical and verbal questions yet in debate. For this 
office we have been qualifying ourselves by years of reading 
specially directed to this end. It need astonish no one that 
in almost every instance we found ourselves in open conflict 
with many critics who, during the past few years, have so 
oracularly taught us how not to say that which we have to say. 
In the more comprehensive work soon to appear — a work 
into which this, in fuller form, will enter — the verdict of 
usage on scores and scores of other mooted points will be 
reported. We have but opened the subject in this volume. 



Preface, • v 

The place in the curriculum of study for which this work 
is designed is near that held by rhetoric — immediately before 
or after it, we think ; certainly before that of English liter- 
ature. 

With one exception we need not here name the authors 
consulted in the preparation of the work. This exception is 
Professor Lounsbury. We have for years used his English 
Language as a text-book. Our debt to him of which we are 
conscious is not small ; but smaller, doubtless, than that of 
which we are unconscious. Especially was his book helpful 
in assigning the dates of changes spoken of in chapters 
IV.-VII. 

The proof-sheets of this work have had the careful criti- 
cism of an eminent professor in one of our largest collegeso 
His valuable suggestions have greatly aided us. 



TO THE TEACHER. 



As this book has been prepared for pupils studying Eng- 
lish in the elementary^ as well as in the advanced^ classes^ Ave 
suggest to the teachers using it with elementary grades that 
they read with the class all the chapters up to the tenths, 
holding the pupil only to the more essential points ; but, 
that, from this chapter on, lessons be regularly assigned. 

We are confident that teachers will find that this study 
can be made exceedingly profitable. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE EARLY COKQUESTS AND LANGUAGES OF BRITAIN. 

I. Classification of Languages. — It goes without saying 
that the languages spoken and understood by the human 
race are not the same. A great part of our education^ 
indeed, consists in learning living languages other than 
our own, in translating what is written in them into our 
own. 

But languages widely differing now may once have been 
the same. A people overcrowding its native valley or 
plateau breaks up. Migrations take place. The masses, 
moving in different directions, thereafter hold little or no 
intercourse with each other. Climates, soils, food, occupa- 
tions, henceforth differ ; and this diversity of environment 
fosters in these separated peoples differences of custom, 
spirit, and character ; and, what is specially in point, dif- 
ferences far-reaching, if not radical, in the words used by 
them. These differences become in time so marked that 
neither the languages nor the peoples speaking them are 
longer thought to be akin. And yet the relationship of 
these tongues may not be wholly lost ; resemblances may 
reinain sufficient for identification. Their original same- 



2 The English Language. 

ness may be proved by the presence in them of the same 
words, few though they be and disguised by change — a 
presence not to be accounted for by borrowing or by a com- 
mon conquest ; and it may be proved also by traces among 
them of a common grammar. These traces, verbal and 
grammatical, betray community of origin, and furnish the 
basis for linguistic classification. 

Grouping the knowii languages with respect to these and 
other characteristics, we have such families as the Chinese, 
the Polynesian, the Scythian, the Semitic, and others ; and, 
above them all in importance, that group among which the 
English is to be counted, namely : — 

II. The Indo-European Family. — Of this group, or family, 
there are ten members — three Asiatic and seven European. 
Seven of the ten have long been recognized, (1) The Indian, 
or Sanskrit, used in Hindostan ; (2) the Iranian, or Ancient 
and Modern Persian ; (3) the Hellenic — Ancient and Mod- 
'ern Greek ; (4) the Italic, that is the Latin and its descend- 
:ants ; viz., the Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the 
Erench, the Provengal, the Eheto-Eomanic, and the AYal- 
lachian ; (5) the Slavonic — preeminently the Eussian ; (6) 
the Celtic, or Keltic, made up of the Cymric and the Gaelic ; 
and (?) the Teutonic, subdivided into the Gothic, the 
Scandinavian, the High German, and the Low German. 
Into the Low German the English falls. To these seven, 
recent scholars have added (8) the Lithuanian, closely 
related to the Slavonic ; (9) the Armenian ; and (10) the 
Albanian. 

These languages, now so unlike each other that until 
this century their kinship was scarcely suspected, were once 
the same speech, spoken by a people dwellino: together 
long enough to build up a respectable vocabulary and a 



The Early Conquests and Languages of Britain. 3 

common grammar. The home of this mother-tribe is a 
matter of conjecture ; until recently it was supposed to 
have been the high table-land of Eastern Persia. Modern 
surmise, mostly German, places it in Europe — in Germany, 
in Scandinavia, in Russia just north of the Black Sea. 
When and in what order the migrations from the old 
homestead took place is equally conjectural ; but that 
great migrations did occur, each migrating horde carrying 
along with it the parent speech, is no longer doubted. 

III. The Celts. — Of this people a word is needed as pref- 
ace to our historical sketch. The Celts occupied the 
Spanish Peninsula, Gaul when Caesar subdued it, and 
Britain when he visited it 55 and 54 B.C. The Celts in 
Britain were at this time broken into many tribes, seldom 
uniting in a common cause. They lived in houses hol- 
lowed out of the hills, built with low stone walls, thatched 
with reeds and straw, and lighted only by the door. Their 
dress was the tunic and short trousers ; their food, fruits, 
milk, flesh, and grain bruised and baked ; their arts^ such 
as the possession of earthen ware, and of war chariots, 
arrows, the sword, the spear, the battle-axe, and the small 
shield implies. They burned or buried their dead, prac- 
tised tattooing, and were largely ruled by their priests, the 
driiids^ who monopolized the learning, arrogated to them- 
selves all authority, paid no taxes, were exempt from all 
public duties, and settled all disputes, civil and criminal. 

IV. The Roman Occupation of the Island. — The Celts made 
no stout resistance to the Romans, who under Agricola had 
hy 84 A.D. conquered as far north as the Firth of Forth, 
which they joined to the river Clyde by the wall of Anto- 
ninus. They subsequently built, as additional protection 
against the Picts, the famous wall of Severus, or Hadrian's 



4 The English Language. 

wall, uniting the Sohyay and the Tyne. The Romans did 
not attempt a thorough conquest of Britain ; but, with their 
headquarters at Eboracum, now York, held the island by a 
series of fortified posts^ whose site is now mainly indicated 
by towns with names ending in Chester, cester or caster 
—forms of the Latin castra, a camp. These posts the 
Eomans connected by broad and straight military roads 
over which their legions could rapidly march. 

The Eomans levied taxes on arable land, on pasture land, 
and on fruits, and exacted customs at the ports. They 
fostered agriculture, and exported grain to Eome. But 
the imperial city whose empire stretched so far, whose 
armies were largely composed of soldiers drafted from her 
subject peoples and led by generals of their own blood, was 
menaced by invading hordes, and was forced to recall her 
legions for her own defence. By 420 the soldiers had all 
left Britain, never to return, and the Celts were again free. 
But their freedom was of short duration. By the middle 
of the fifth century a more formidable invasion than the 
Eoman had taken place, and a more thorough conquest 
was begun by 

V. The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. — These peoples 
from Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland, provinces about the 
mouths of the Elbe and north of them, were of the Low 
German branch of the Teutonic stock. They had blue 
eyes and flaxen hair, were large of frame, huge feeders, 
and most ^'potent in potting.^^ They were fond of advent- 
ure on land and on sea, and were fierce and cruel in battle. 
They were owners and tillers oi the soil^ hated cities, knew 
no king, and lived each group of related families within 
its mark, or district, which was bounded by a belt of neu- 
tral land from other '^farmer commonwealths/^ Among 



The Early Conquests and Languages of Britain. 5 

them there was a sprinkling of eorlSy earls^ who were men 
of nobler birth^ but enjoyed no superior legal rights. The 
homesteads of each mark clustered around the moot-hill^ 
where the whole community met to administer justice, 
and the wise men to settle questions of peace and war and 
to frame laws. Their religion was pagan; each mark 
had its fane, or church, and every man was the priest of 
his own household. Their gods, Tiw, Woden, Thor, and 
Frea, have given names to all but three of the days of 
our week. Our Old Nick, Old Scratch, iveird, Easter, and 
hell can be traced to other, though minor, deities of theirs. 

On the withdrawal of the Eoman legions from Britain, 
the unsubdued Picts and Scots of the north attacked the 
Celts of the south, who had been Roman subjects. Whether 
the assailed Britons detached the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes 
from an alliance with the Picts and Scots, and turned them 
against their former allies ; whether, without having been 
in alliance, these foreigners came by invitation across the 
North Sea to help beat back these Picts and Scots ; or 
whether, lured by the fertile soil, they came uninvited, and 
on their own account, we may never know ; but it is cer- 
tain that they came, and that they came to stay. Their 
coming is of immense significance, for they became the 
basis of the English nation, and their speech the mother- 
tongue of the English language. 

The JuteSf we are told by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 
came over under Hengist and Horsa in 449, and settled in 
Kent. Ella and his followers, in 477, and Cerdic with 
his, in 495, settled Sussex in the south and Wessex in the 
west, and later Saxons founded Essex. The ending sex 
would of itself suggest the origin of these kingdoms. 
Three kingdoms north of Thames — the largest of which. 



6 The English Language. 

Northumbrian stretched from the Humber to the Forth — 
were founded by the Angles. Besides this^, East Anglia 
and Mercia were established. 

The conquest of the Celts by these Low German invad- 
ers — that of a Christian people by a pagan, it may be 
noticed — proceeded slowly, and in 520 came to a halt 
which lasted fifty years. It was then resumed, and by 
607 the unexterminated Britons had taken refuge in the 
western part of the island. And now for more than two 
hundred years the conquerors w^aged fierce war upon one- 
another. The seven kingdoms^ for Avar begat the king, 
contended for the overlordship, till in 827 Wessex secured 
it, the Heptarchy became a Monarchy, and Egbert ruled 
from the English Channel to the Firth of Forth. 

Meanwhile the invaders had been Christianized, Augus- 
tine and his missionaries arriving from Kome in 597. The 
Christian temple rose on the site of the jDagan fane. By 
the end of the seventh century, the Church was a single 
organization in spite of the division of the island into 
warring kingdoms. As population increased, the marks 
coalesced and became shires, of which in Alfred^s time 
there were thirty-two, each with its organization, religious, 
legal, and political. 

VI. The Danish Conquest. — The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
relates that in 787 the Danes, as all Northmen, or Scandi- 
navians, at this time were called, began their invasions. 
Sweeping up the great rivers that pour their waters into, 
the North Sea, they laid waste the territory adjacent^^. 
harried and killed the inhabitants, and settled as they 
conquered. The very verb harry is Anglo-Saxon, derived 
from their name for the dreaded Danish army — here, 
What terror this army inspired may be gathered from the 



The Early. Conquests and Languages of Britain, 7 

fact that this prayer made its way into the Anglo-Saxon 
litany : '' From the incursions of the Northmen^ good 
Lord, deliver us/^ 

These Scandinavians were beaten in great battles, and 
driven back only to return. They were bought off with 
gold ; and finally, on condition that they would confine 
themselves within it, they were given the territory to the 
east and north-east of Watling Street, an old Roman mil- 
itary road, which stretched from near Dover through Lon- 
don to Chester on the Dee. But they could not be kept 
within the limits of this territory, called the Danelagh, 
and at last succeeded in placing four kings in succession 
on the throne — Sweyn, Canute, Harold Harefoot, and 
Hardicanute, 1013-1042. 

VII. The Languages Spoken on the Island. — The uncon- 
quered Celts, or Kelts, of the west and north spoke their 
own tongue, of course, the Celtic, or Keltic. That of the 
conquered portion was overwhelmingly the language of the 
conquerors, and was called the Anglo- Saxon. But it 
was not quite pure ; some few Celtic words had entered it. 
The Celtic names for the rivers, lakes, hills, and moun- 
tains clung fast to these objects, and are found in English 
even now. 

Isaac Taylor in Words and Places says, '^ Throughout 
the whole of England there is hardly a single river-name 
which is not Celtic.''^ Avon, Celtic for water, is the name 
of fourteen English rivers to-day. Esh, meaning the same 
thing, designates more than twenty. It has entered into 
the names of towns also, as in Ex^ier, ^2;minster, Oxtordi, 
and UxhridigQ. Tliames, Humber, Wye, Cam, Ouse, and many 
other river-names are Celtic. Pen or Ben, the usual Celtic 
name for a mountain, is seen in the name for the range 



8 The English Language. 

called Pennine;, in that of the hills called Pe7^tland^ in Ben- 
Nevis^ and jBe^-Lomond. Dun, a hill-fortress, is found in 
YiOTidon, i>2/mbarton, DundiQQ, etc. Scores, even hundreds, 
of other Celtic words can be found on almost any map of 
England; and, indeed, as Taylor claims, on the maps of 
Spain, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. Besides these 
geographical terms it is said that the common words 

Clout, crock, cradle, cart, down, pillow, barrow^ glen, havoc, kiln, 
mattock, and pool 

came into the Anglo-Saxon before the Norman Conquest. 
As other Celtic words appeared later, we will call all these, 
whether geographical or other, entering the Anglo-Saxon 
and continued into English, the Celtic^ or Keltic, of the 
First Period. 

But in the Celtic vocabulary foreign words had found a 
lodgment. The Romans held most of the island for hun- 
dreds of years. Many of their words filtered down into the 
speech of the subject Celts. Some of these, seven it is said, 
all geographical but two, forced their way up into the lan- 
guage of the Anglo-Saxon conquerors. Castra, a camj), 
appears in the names of towns ending in Chester, caster, 
and cester J as, Manchestei^ Jj^ncaster, ajiAJjeicester ; strata, 
paved streets, in Stratford, Streat\\am, etc. ; colonia, a set- 
tlement, in lAncoln and Colne ; fossa, a trench, in Foss- 
way and FoshvidgQ ; portiis, a harbor, in Porz^^mouth and 
^Yidport ; vallum, a rampart, in tvall ; and mile. These 
seven now in English we call Latin of the First Feriod. 

But, as we have said, the heathen Anglo-Saxons were 
Christianized. Hosts of Hoiuan words, some of which 
were derived from the Greek, the language of the New Tes- 
tament and of the early Christians, came in with, or/o^- 



The Early Conquests and Languages of Britain, 9 

lowed in the wake of, the Christian Churchy whose services 
were conducted in Latin. Presiyter, originally an elder, 
apostolus, one sent^ clericus, one ordained^ and episcopus, an 
overseer, taking the forms in Anglo-Saxon oi preost,postol^ 
clerc, and iiscop, and, in English, of priest, apostle, clerh, 
and bishop ; and such words as cheese, pound, candle, table, 
and marble illustrate these acquisitions. 

Sometimes after naturalization these words combined 
with the Anglo-Saxon, as in sealm-boc, our psalm-book. 
Sometimes they took Anglo-Saxon endings. Monachus 
becoming munuc, monk, added had and formed an abstract. 
To this same munuc, lie, our like, was annexed, and an 
adjective was created ; lice, and a new adverb appeared. 
The Latin missa {est), changed to Anglo-Saxon mcesse, 
mass, took the infinitive ending, and became mcessian, 
to say mass ; and prcedicare turned into predician^ our 
preach. 

Of the Latin words brought into Anglo-Saxon by the 
Church, or following in its wake, there were before the 
Nor^Tian Conquest at least six hundred, it is thought ; if 
compounds are counted, three or four times as many. These 
are styled the Lathi of the Second JPeriod. 

The Danish Conquest introduced Scandinaviari ter^ns. 
Taylor says that in the east of England, most of them 
in the Danelagh, there are six hundred places whose 
names end in by, Scandinavian for town. This, seen in 
Hugby, Grimsby, in one hundred names in Lincolnshire 
alone, is found also in our word by-lsiw. Thorp, or torp, 
German doif, a village, is found in Althorpe and Wihtrop ; 
thwaite, a, cleaTmg, in Fin&thwaite and BvsiJthwaite ; ness, 
a nose or cape, in Sheer^iess and Csiithiiess ; wic, a creek or 
bay, in Wichlidim., ^orivich, and in viking ; toft, a home- 



10 The English Language, 

stead, i]i Lowestoft and Totness ; and garth, a yard, in 
Aipiplegarth and Fishguard. All these and beck, a brook ; 
force, a waterfall ; dale, German thai, a valley ; and holm, 
an island, existing as separate words or in composition, and 
entering before the Norman Conquest, we call Scandi- 
navian of the First Period, 

VIII. Anglo-Saxon Literature. — The prose consists chieflj 
of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Alfred^s rendering of Bede's 
Ecclesiastical History of the Angles and Saxo7is and of 
Boethius^s De Consolatione FhilosophicB, Homilies, and 
Translations of the Gospels, and the Laws of ^thelbirht 
and Alfred ; the poetry is found mainly in Beowulf (the 
Anglo-Saxon Iliad), such fragments as the Traveller's Song 
and the Fight at Finnshurg, Caedmon^s Bible Epics, Cyne- 
wulf s Christ and Elene, the Harrowing of Hell, some 
psalms and hymns and secular lyrics. 

The poetry is rhj^thmical. Each line is broken into two 
sections ; each section, March thinks, with four rhythm 
accents. It is characterized by alliteration^ the perfect 
line having three alliterating syllables — two in the first 
section and one in the second. 

Anglo-Saxon poetry, hardly thirty thousand lines in all, 
has been preserved in part in two manuscripts — the Exeter 
Book and the Vercelli Book — the latter found in 1832, in 
Italy. 

Considered as literature, Anglo-Saxon prose and poetry 
are interesting chiefly to the student, and have had little 
influence on English writers ; looked at lexically and gram- 
^natically^ they are invaluable. 

The glorious period of the Anglo-Saxons was Alfred's 
reign, 871-901; their decline in art and in arms begins soon 
after. " The specific causes of their decay we are unable to 



The Early Conquests and Languages of Britain. 11 

assign/^ says George P. Marshy ^^but it is evident that . . . 
the people and their literature were in a state of languish- 
ing depression which was enlivened and cheered by no 
symptoms of returning life and vigor/^ The downfall of 
the Saxon Commonwealth was not caused^ only hastened, 
by the Normans. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE XORMAX CONQUEST AND THE NEW TONGUE. 

IX. The Norman Conquest — The Normans^ or Xorth- 
meii^ were originally of the Norse^ or Scandinayian^ branch 
of the Teutonic race. '^ They were men of action^ enter- 
prising merchants, navigators, soldiers of fortune, leading 
the van of every battle from Norway to Byzantium. '^ Break- 
ing from the restraints of a power that was consolidating 
the Scandinavian kingdoms, they boldly ventured forth, 
conquered the Shetland Isles, tlie Orkneys, and the Heb- 
rides, founded the kingdom of Caithness in Scotland, 
settled Iceland, discovered Greenland, and colonized Vin- 
land, supposed to be on the coast of Xew-England. 

In 911, Ilol/\ or Eollo, the Ganger, with his band of 
vikings, got a footing in the fertile valley of the Seine. 
This province of ]S"ormandy he received as a fief from Charles 
the Simple, became his vassal with the title of duke, and 
married his daughter. The Normans were brought under 
French law and customs, became Christians, adopted the 
French language, married into French families, and caught 
the French spirit. 

In 1066, the childless Edward the Confessor died, and 
Harold, his brother-in-haw, succeeded him. But William^ 
seventh Duke of Normandy, whose aunt, Emma, had been 
married to Ethelred II. of England, claimed the throne by 
hereditary right and by the promise of both Edward and 



The Norman Conquest and the New Tongue, 13 

Harold, and set sail with thirty thousand followers for the 
coast of England. On October 14, 1066, he met and 
defeated Harold on the slope of Senlac, near Hastings, 
and soon after was crowned king at Westminster. This was 
the only conquest — and British soil has throbbed to the 
'^'^ drums and tramplings ^^ of four — that reached down to 
the people of the island and in time thoroughly leavened 
them. But the admixture of new blood and another spirit 
with theirs proved the most signal blessing that ever befell 
them. We can call it no less than their regeneration. It 
made the English nation of to-day, the English language, 
and the English literature. 

To his Teittonie ancestry the modern JEnglishman 
owes his love of justice and fair play, his honesty, his 
religious nature, his physical robustness and intellectual 
sturdiness, his doggedness of purpose, his strong good 
sense, his love of liberty, his fondness for facts, and his 
firm grip upon the real. To his French lineage — and we 
must remember that, though originally Teutonic, the Nor- 
mans had been metamorphosed by their life in France ; and 
that, though many of French extractign accompanied Wil- 
liam the Conqueror, they were to those who followed after 
but as the prologue to the play — the modern Englishinan 
owes his manner, his tact, his sense of proportion, his 
genius for administration, his poetic skill, and his artistic 
nature. In him the two races have blended most happily, 
forming a composite better than either component, greater 
even than both elements while separated. 

The changes which Anglo-Saxon underwent because of 
this conquest are vital, we will say fundatnental ; they 
amount to a revolution. A change of name is needed to 
mark this. We have purposely refrained from calling the 



14 The English Language, 

dominant people of the island^ or their speech, before 1066^ 
by any other term than Anglo-Saxon. But after the union 
of the peoples and of the languages, a new word is needed to 
denote new things ; and this term we have in the word 
English. As we use it, English denotes always the race 
resulting from the marriage of the two peoples, or the speech 
resulting from the union of the two tongues. 

X. The Two Peoples Side by Side. — But we must guard 
against supposing that either the two peoples or the two 
tongues were welded into one instantaneously. They grew 
together, and this growth was slow. 

Any yoke of conquest would be galling to the liberty- 
loving Anglo-Saxons, but there are special reasons why this 
was so. The conqueror was of alien blood ; and national 
animosity existed between him and the conquered. Wil- 
liam's conquest was ruthless, especially in the north. He 
ravaged the country, destroyed harvests, cattle, the very 
implements of husbandry, burned town and village, and slew 
the inhabitants or drove them across the border. He con- 
fiscated the entire soil. He parceled out the land, upon 
condition of military service, among a score or more of 
great vassals, among some hundreds of inferior crown- vas- 
sals, and among the higher clergy. '' The meanest Nor- 
man rose to wealth and power in the new dominion of the 
Duke.'" By this establishment of a modified feudal system, 
the mass of the population were reduced to a species of serf- 
dom, became mere tillers of the soil. Shoals of Norman 
ecclesiastics came across the Channel, and the people were 
forced to receive even religious consolation from foreigners. 
Another language than their own prevailed in all places of 
authority — in the palace and among the nobility, in law 
courts, in the schools. To their painful consciousness of 



The Norman Conquest and the Neiv Tongue. 15 

social and political degradation was added their keen sense 
of the scorn with which the Norman regarded their lack of 
culture and their "^^ barbarous tongue/^ 

But the influences operative through all these years were 
not wholly those of repulsion. These two peoples living 
together had to meet each other in the field and in the 
town. They were forced to buy of each other and to sell to 
each other. Time could not but temper the arrogance of 
the one, and qualify the sullen moroseness of the other. The 
subject race gradually acquired definite rights. The service 
which the serf rendered became limited, and could be com- 
muted for payments of money. The possession of his hut 
a,nd of the plat of ground around it, and his privilege of 
turning a few cattle out on the waste land of the manor, 
changed from indulgences into rights that could be pleaded 
at law. The serf was struggling to become a copyholder, 
and the copyholder to be a freeholder. The military power 
of the nobles waned. The courts of the feudal baronage 
were shorn of their power. The feudal system was giving 
w^ay. The Anglo-Saxons were improving in education as 
well as in material things. They and the ISTormans inter- 
married. 

A strong national feeling was springing up before which 
their mutual antagonism was yielding. This feeling was 
aided by the fact that the English kings had vast possessions 
in France, partly hereditary and partly acquired by mar- 
riage. To hold these against the French kings required a 
united people, a people made one by the strong sentiment of 
nationality. And to make head against the encroachments 
of their own kings the nobility were forced to make common 
cause with the people. To what extent the barons identified 
the cause of the commons with their own may be seen from 



16 The English Language, 

the celebrated provisions of the Great Charter extorted from 
King John in 1215. 

XI. The Two Languages Side by Side. — For a long while 
after the Conqnest there existed in England the strange 
spectacle of two languages declining to coalesce and yet 
spoken by two peoples living together. Xeither language 
would yield to the other, neither people would learn that of 
the other. How little these two tongues had blended m the 
vocabulary of writers, at least, may be seen when we say 
that Layamon's Brut, a poem of thirty-two thousand lines, 
written in 1205, does not contain a hundred and fifty French 
words ; and that in the Onnulum, a poem of twenty thou- 
sand lines, appearing in the year of Magna Chart a , scarcely 
fifty French words are found. 

But during this period the difficulties in the way of a 
coalescence were gradually lessening. Such of these as might 
be called political we have spoken of in the preceding sec- 
tion. Of those difficulties more properly linguistic we will 
here say a word. 

This period was for the subject race one of great and 
general depression. Very little literature was produced by 
them, and that little of an indifferent quality. Their speech 
was no longer cultivated. The standards in it were all for- 
gotten. Anglo-Saxon was no longer taught in schools, 
spoken at the palace and in the castles of the nobles, or 
used in courts of law. Few were writing in it. It was 
left in the care, if care it can be called, of those ignorant of 
the literature in it and of its grammar, and familiar only 
with tlie vocabulary employed in colloquial speech upon tne 
commonplace topics of the household, the farm, the street. 

The effect of all this upon the language can easily be in- 
ferred. A large fraction of the vocabulary, the more digni- 



The Norman Conquest and tlie New Tongue, 17 

fied and scholarly portion, fell into neglect and then into 
oblivion. Of the words kept in circulation, so much of each 
as we call its grammatical inflections, denoting case, person, 
number, tense, almost entirely perished. These inflections 
would be retained only by those aware of their importance ; 
they sloughed off as the words dropped from the tongues of 
those ignorant of it. When, then, this Anglo-Saxon speech, 
had forced itself upon the Normans, as it fairly succeeded in 
doing by the second half of the fourteenth century, it was far 
easier to master than it would have been immediately after 
1066. It is estimated that nearly one-half of the words in 
the vocabulary before the Conquest dropped out of it in the 
three hundred years immediately following, and we certainly 
know that the grammar had been vastly simplified. With 
one-half of its words lost, and the remaining half nearly 
fiectionless, the work of learning the language was made easy 
for the Norman. 

AVe said that by 1350 the conquered had forced their 
tongue upon their conquerors. Let us dwell upon this fact, 
for it was a signal achievement and of far-reaching conse- 
quences. AVe have it upon the authority of John of Trevisa, 
that, after the great pestilence of 1349, the instmction of 
youth was revoltitionized. John Cornwall changed the in^ 
struction in the grammar-school from French into English, 
and Richard Pencrich and others followed his lead, so that 
in 1385 in all the grammar-schools of England the chil- 
dren had abandoned French and were taught in English. 
In 1362 French was exchanged for English in the courts of 
law. An act of Parliament was passed in this year, ordering 
that in all the courts '^all pleas . . . shall be pleaded, 
shewed, defended, answered, debated, and judged in the 
English tongue. ^^ Great writers had now arisen — Wyclif, 
2 



18 The English Language. 

1324-1384, in prose ; Chaucer, 1340-1400, in poetry. They 
wrote in English, and their influence upon the plastic lan- 
guage of their time, and upon all English writers succeeding, 
is simply incalculable. 

We may add that the adoption of Anglo-Saxon by the Xor- 
man was greatly facilitated by the fact that the French he 
was using had become sadly corrupt. That which he 
brought over from the Continent was not the French of Paris, 
but the degenerate tongue of Xormandy, and so at best was 
provincial, a mere patois. But during the centuries of its use 
in England it had been kept from free contact with the dia- 
lect of Normandy, and so had deteriorated even from this 
imperfect standard — had become, as Lounsbury aptly puts it, 
a mere patois of 2, patois. The J^orman himself had grown 
ashamed of it, and was not unwilling to part with it. 

XII. The New Tongue — its Composition. — When now we 
say that by 1400, and even earlier, English was generally 
used, what are we really saying ? What do we mean b}^ JEng- 
lish? Just what in Section IX. we said we should mean 
when we applied the term to a language. We mean a speech 
not in existence by itself till long after the Xorman Conquest; 
a sjDeech neither Anglo-Saxon nor French, but Anglo- Saocon 
and French ; a speech to which both of these contributed, 
to form which both of these were combined. For the adop- 
tion of words was not all done by the Xorman. While he 
borrowed many from the Saxon, the Saxon borrowed some 
from the Xorman. What by mutual giving and taking the 
two jointly formed is the English, a compromise, a com- 
pound ; one speech after the union, but not univocal, not 
all of a piece, every speaker of which is bilingual. 

We have hitherto called the tongue brought over by the 
Conqueror Nor man- French. But it is time now to say 



The Norman Conquest and the New Tongue, 19 

that in reality it was Latin. Just before the Christian era 
Julius Caesar subdued the people then in possession of what 
is now France^ and imposed upon them his language, which 
was that of Eome. This language, used for a thousand 
years by a people to whom it was not the mother-tongue, the 
Normans, of still another alien stock, acquired, and brought 
into England. Spoken a whole millennium by those whose 
yernacular it displaced, and from them learned by strangers, 
the words had lost much of their original form and mean- 
ing. Outwardly they were almost invariably shortened. By 
a dropping of vowels or consonants, or of both, two or three 
syllables had been squeezed into one ; as, French sur, our 
sure, from original Latin securus ; French regie, our rule, 
from Latin regula ; French %le, English isle, from insula. 
And sometimes the final and unaccented syllable or syllables 
seem not to have been caught by the subject Gaul ; or, if 
caught by his ear, were not retained on his tongue. The 
Latin domina, for instance, appears in French as the trun- 
cated dame ; medius dies, as midi j malum, as mal. Still, 
though changed, the French words are Latin ; their essen- 
tial identity with the words used by the countrymen of 
Horace and Virgil is easily seen. 

We spoke in Section VII. of the Celtic and of the Scandi- 
navian of the First Period, and of the Latin of the First and 
Second Periods — words from these languages taken up by 
the Anglo-Saxon and carried on into English. Here we 
add that these Norman words, introduced in the centuries 
succeeding the Conquest, and entering into union with the 
Anglo-Saxon to form the English, constitute the Latin of 
the Third Period. 

But as the original Celtic of Britain had Latin words in it, 
so this Latin of the Normans had Celtic words in it. The 



20 The Englisli Language, 

Gauls themselves were Celts ; and it could not be that, when 
forced to adopt the Latin tongue, they would surrender 
every word of their own speech. Indeed, in the province of 
Brittany the native tongue was not exterminated, and, as 
Breton, still survives. The Celtic words brought into Eng- 
lish by the incoming of the Xormans constitute the Celtic 
of the Second Teriod, A few of these words are : — 

Baggage, bar, barrel, basin, button, carry, pottage, truant, varlet, 
and vassal. 

Whatever Celtic words have been admitted into English 
since, whether Irish, Welsh, Gaelic, or Breton — and 

Clan, claymore, flimsy, kern, pibroch, plaid, spalpeen, and whiskey 

are samples of these — constitute the Celtic of the Third 
Period, Whatever Scandinavian v^ords have come into 
English since the Xorman Conquest, and, according to Pro- 
fessor Skeat, their name is legion, such as. 

Are, call, drag, gabble, grab, gravy, hap, hinge, hurry, lug, lunch, 
pod, ransack, sag, scratch, scream, shirt, snug, stutter, teem, whim, 
and whisk, 

we call Scandinavian of the Second Period, 

The Norman-French words in English were largely spoken 
words — words dropping from the tongue, and learned by 
the ear, both in France and afterward in England. But 
there was another large influx of Latin words conse- 
quent upon that great quickening of European mind known 
as the Renaissance, or Eevival of Learning, the first waves 
of which touched English shores about the opening of the 
sixteenth century. The Xew Learning, as the historian 
Green calls it, and the new ideas to which it gave birth, 
demanded new words ; and from 1550 to 1660^ Latin was the 



The Norman Conquest and the New Tongue, %\ 

store on which writers began to draw. But the Latin of 
these learned men was the Latin of the eye and the pen^ 
taken directly from Latin literature ; or^ if from French as 
well, it was from French books, and was not that spoken 
by the people. The Latin words thus transferred to Eng- 
lish had suffered then, and have suffered since, little or no 
change, and may readily be distinguished from the Latin • 
of the Third Period by their fuller form. These Latin 
words, brought in to meet the needs of scholars — and their 
coming has not yet wholly ceased — are called the Latin of 
the Fourth Period, 

Greek has a very respectable contingent in English — five 
per cent, of the whole vocabulary. Trench estimates. Perhaps 
half this number would be a better guess. They are largely 
scientific and technical, mostly '^inkhorn^^ terms, rarely on 
the tongue in conversation. They are such as : — 

Amphibious, anachronism, anodyne, barometer, blaspheme, catarrh, 
catastrophe, cynosure, decagon, dilemma, doxology, electric, exegesis, 
glossary, heliocentric, heterodox, hydrophobia, hyperbole, hypote- 
nuse, idiom, isosceles, labyrinth, lexicon, mechanic, metamorphosis, 
monosyllable, necrology, octagon, oxygen, phenomenon, phrenology, 
polemical, rhetoric, sporadic, squirrel, surgeon, synonym, telegraph, 
telephone, thermometer, therapeutic, trophy, tyrant, zone, and zoology. 

From the Hebreiv^ we have such words as : — 

Amen, bedlam, cabal, cherub, cinnamon, hallelujah, hosannah, Je- 
hovah, jubilee, manna, sabbath, Satan, seraph, shekel, and shibboleth. 

The English race has penetrated all seas, and has had 

intercourse, commercial, literary, or other, with the peoples 

of all lands. From most of these it has brought home 

words which it has naturalized and made good English. 

From the Italian^ we have imported such words as : — 

Alarm, bagatelle, balcony, balustrade, bankrupt, bust, canto, citadel, 



22 The English Language, 

concert, contraband, cupola, ditto, duet, gondola, granite, guitar, 
influenza, lagoon, lava, madrigal, malaria, motto, mustache, niche, 
opera, pantaloon, pedant, piano, pistol, portico, quota, regatta, 
ruffian, serenade, sonnet, soprano, stanza, studio, tirade, trio, trom- 
bone, umbrella, vista, and volcano. 

From the Spanish^ such words as : — 

Armada, barricade, booby, bravado, buffalo, capsize, cargo, cask, 
cigar, comrade, cork, Creole, embargo, flotilla, indigo, merino, mos- 
quito, mulatto, negro, renegade, savanna, sherry, tornado, and vanilla. 

From the Portuguese^ such as : — 

Caste, cocoa-nut, commodore, fetich, lasso, molasses, palaver, and 
tank. 

From the Dutchf such as : — 

Aloof, ballast, bluff, boor, brackish, brandy, bumpkin, clinker, dap- 
per, elope, fop, gas, growl, holster, hustle, jeer, knapsack, landscape, 
loiter, luff, measles, morass, mumps, ogle, rant, reef, skates, skipper, 
sloop, smuggle, wagon, yacht, and yawl. 

From the German, such as : — 

Dutch, feldspar, huzzah, loafer, meerschaum, nickel, plunder, 
poodle, quartz, swindler, trull, and zinc. 

From the Slavonic^ such as : — 

Calash, czar, knout, polka, sable, slave, and steppe. 

From the JPersian^ such as : — 

Bazaar, caravan, check, checkers, chess, divan, ghoul, hazard, horde, 
jackal, jar, lemon, lilac, mummy, musk, orange, rice, sash, shawl, and 
veranda. 

From the Hindu^ such as : — 

Banyan, calico, chintz, jungle, loot, pagoda, palanquin, sepoy, 
shampoo, sugar, and toddy. 

From the TurkisJi^ such as : — 
Bey, janissary, ottoman, and tulip. 



The Norman Conquest and tTie New Tongue. 23 

From the Malay ^ such as : — 

Bamboo, bantam, caddy, gong, gutta-percha, mango, orang-outang, 
rattan, rum, and sago. 

From the Polynesian, such as : — 
Boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, and tattoo. 

From the Chinese, such as : — 

China, junk, nankeen, serge, silk, tea, and typhoon. 

From the Arabic, such as : — 

Alcohol, algebra, alkali, amber, azure, candy, carat, chemistry, cipher, 
coffee, cotton, crimson, elixir, Hegira, gazelle, Koran, magazine, mat- 
tress, minaret, Moslem, myrrh, nadir, sherbet, sofa. Saltan, tariff, 
zenith, and zero. 

From the North American Indian, such as : — 
Hominy, moccasin, moose, raccoon, skunk, squaw, tomahawk, and 
wigwam. 

From the West Indian, such as : — 

Buccaneer, cannibal, canoe, hammock, hurricane, maize, potato, and 
tobacco. 

We might instance words in English from South Ameri- 
can languages^ and even from African^ but we forbear. 

But, after all, the great component elements of English 
are the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin — the Latin mostly that 
of the Third and Fourth Periods, of course. Our work for 
some time to come must be with these. 

It is from the Anglo-Saxon that the English derives all 
the grammar it has. This mother-tongue of English is the 
Joseph's sheaf to which all other sheaves in the field bow in 
obeisance. We cannot, then, give the history of the lan- 
guage without noting the changes which this element has 
undergone and has compelled. 



24 



Tlie English Language. 



o 

G 



O 

o 
o 



p 

<i 
o 
o 

t— I 

o 



lo Anglo-Saxon. 



2. Latin . 



< 



{ Of the First Period. 

Of the Second Period. 
i Of the Third Period. 
t Of the Fourth Period. 



3. Greek. 



4. IndO'European. 

( Of the First Period. 

5. Celtic \ Of the Second Period. 

i Of the Third Period. 



6. Scandinavian . . 



7. Hebrew. 



Such Other Fan- 
guages as... . 



Of the First Period. 
Of the Second Period. 



fthe Italian f the Spanish, the 
Portuguese (these three Latin in 
origin), the T>utch, the German^ 
the Slavonic^ the Persian, the 
Hindu ^ the Turhish^ the ilfTa- 
Z«?/, the Polynesian, the C^/- 
nese, the Arabic, the North 
American Indian, and the 
IFesf Indian. 



CHAPTER III. 

OKTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES OF A:N"GL0-SAX0K WORDS IN" 

becomi:ng ejstglish. 

XIII. The Alphabet. — 1. Its Characters. — Three Anglo- 
Saxon characters never came into English. Theoretically^ 
our th in tliin stands for the firsts and th in tliine for the 
isecond ; though^ with certain exceptions^ Professor Sweet 
pronounces both the Anglo-Saxon characters alike, and Pro- 
fessor Marcli assures us that in no Anglo-Saxon manuscript 
are they uniformly discriminated. The Anglo-Saxon charac- 
ter for which we have substituted ^v never appears in Eng- 
lish ; many editors use w for it in their Anglo-Saxon texts. 

The English has added to the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, the 
letters j, t\ and z, and the superfluous k and q. We have 
combined c with h^ as in choose ; s with h^ as in shame ; and, 
as shown above, t with h^ as in thin, and t with h, as in thine 
— each of the four combinations representing a single sound. 

2. T7ie Sounds of the Votvels. — The Anglo-Saxon vowels 
were pronounced nearly as are the German. In coming 
into English, these sounds were modified ; and, what is 
-especially noticeable, others were added — a, for instance, 
now representing six sounds. 

3. The Consonants and theii^ Combinations. — The 
Anglo-Saxon consonants in English retain nearly their old 
■sounds. But their / medial and final had the sound of v, 
ours never except in of. The Anglo-Saxons took delight in 



26 The English Language, 

combining c and n, and h and t, as in cniht (the h a gut- 
tural^ as in German) ; n and g, as in singan ; c and ^r^ as in 
licgan ; h and n, as in hnlgan ; h and Z, as in hldford ; h 
and r, as in hring ; lo and r, as in ivrltan ; and ?(; and Z^ as 
in lolltan. Then they pronounced both consonants of the 
combination ! We owe it to the Normans that we are not 
called upon to attempt these difficult feats. Liying in 
Prance for generations^ they came to dislike all such sounds, 
especially the gutturals, made far back in the mouth. They« 
could not or would not utter them, and so have saved us 
the necessity. This they accomplished (1) by dropping the 
guttural^ as ^ from genoh Midi fug ol, — our enough anclfowl; 
(2) by changing the guttural to another lettei^—hdlig becom- 
ing holy ; (3) by running the two sounds into one, — ^lie n and 
g in singan having but one sound, as in smg : (4) by allow- 
ing the guttural to remain, but making it a mute, — liht pro- 
nounced lit ; (5) by softening the guttural into a palatal, — 
hrycg becoming bridge; and (6) by labializing the guttural, 
and adding a vowel sound to aid pronunciation, — sorg chang- 
ing to our sorrow. 

Of gh^ Meiklejohn has this humorous account : ^"^ Our 
Saxon scribes wrote not light, might, and night, but liht, 
miht, and niht. When, however, they found that the Nor- 
man-French gentlemen would not sound the h and say — as is 
still said in Scotland — licht, etc., they redoubled the guttural, 
strengthened the h with a hard g, and again presented the 
dose to the Xorman. But, if the Norman could not sound 
the h alone, still less could he sound the double guttural ; 
and he very coolly let both alone. . . . And so it came to 
pass that we have the symbol gh in more than seventy of 
our words, and that in most of these we do not sound it at 
all.^' 



Orthographical Changes of Anglo-Saxon Words, 27 

Gh final and even medial we sometimes pronounce as f ; 
as in^ cough, enough, and draught. 

To the Anglo-Saxon Tc sound of c, as in cyning, we have, 
through Norman-French influence, added the s sound, as in 
city ; to their hard sound of g, as in our give, we have added 
the / sound, as in gin, 

XIV. Other Changes in Sounds and in Orthography. — The 
changes just spoken of are fitly treated under another head, 
but they partly illustrate orthographical changes. Anglo- 
Saxon a is found in English as o or oe or oa, — ham, da, 
and dc are our home, doe, and oaTc. Frequently, e appears 
as ee ; b, as oo ; y, as short i; and y, as long i,—fet and 
ges are our feet and geese ; god and stol are our good and 
stool J syn and dym are sin and dim ; and fyr and hyd 
are fire and hide, Anglo-Saxon u appears in English regu- 
larly as o^^ or ow, — hus, ut, and scur are our house, out, 
and shower. 

Our w and our th in thin and ^A^7^6 excluded, as was said, 
the Anglo-Saxon characters. Initial/ in Anglo-Saxon often 
appears in English as v, — fatu and fers as vats and verse ; 
final / in the singular of nouns often is v in the English 
plural, — wulf has wolves ; f between two vowels is v, — efese 
and efen are our eaves and even, Ourj sometimes takes the 
place of Anglo-Saxon i, — Judea for ludea. Our ch and h 
are occasionally substituted for Anglo-Saxon c, — church and 
cheese for cyrice and cyse, and Mng, hiss, and knight for 
cyning, coss, and c;^^A^. Anglo-Saxon c«^? appears in Eng- 
lish as qu, — cwic, cwen, and cwelan becoming quich, queen, 
and quell. Their sc is our 5A, — scip, sclr, seep, and /5(? 
turning into ship, shire, sheep, and fish. Their ^ often 
becomes our y, — gear, ge, geoc, and geong appearing as year, 
ye, yohe^ and young. Initial h before I, n, and r is dropped. 



28 The English Language. 

— hldf^ hnut^ and hring turning into loa}\ nut, and ring. 
Initial hio always changes to our loh, though the h breathing 
precedes the w sounds — hwlt, hivylc, and hivwl becoming 
white, tvhich, and whale. The consonant r sometimes changes 
place with the vowel preceding, — Irid and urn appearing as 
iird and run. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

GEAMMATICAL CHAJS^GES OF THE A:N^GL0-SAX0N IK BECOM- 
ING EI^GLISH. — THE NOUN. 

XV. Changes in the Declension. — There were two Declen- 
sions in the Anglo-Saxon^ each running through four cases 
and two numbers — the Vowel^ or Strongs Declension^ and 
the Consonant^ or Weak. We give^ below, the case-endings 
in both numbers of these declensions. 



THE STRONG, OR VOWEL, DECLENSION. 

Singular. Plural. 



Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nam, —, e. n^ —^ — • — , e, 

Oen, es^ es. e, e^ e, es, es. 

Dat. €^ e, 6, e^ e, e, e. 

Ace. — ^ €, e^ — , e, — , r. 



Masculine, Fenninine. Neuter. 

as, a^ — ^ a. — , ii. 

a, ena, a, a. a, a, 

tim. inn, um^ urn. mn^ am. 

as, a. — , a. — . If, 



THE WEAK, OR CONSONANT, DECLENSION. 

Singular. Plural. 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nofn, a, e, e, 

Oen, an^ an, an. 

Dat, an, an, an, 

Aee, an, an, e, 

1. Change of the um Ending. — Even before the Con- 
quest oni, seen to-day in our wJiilom and seldom (nouns in 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter 


an. 


an. 


an. 


en a. 


ena. 


ena 


ujn. 


nni. 


tun. 


an. 


an. 


an. 



30 The English Language, 

Anglo-Saxon)^ had begun to displace the dative plural end- 
ing um. Latei% on took the place of this om. 

2. Change of the Voivels of the Endings to e. — A 
sweeping change^ begun before the Conquest^ advancing 
rapidly after it^ and completed by the end of the twelfth cen- 
tury^ was the weakening of the other vowels of the endings 
to e. After um had become om, and then on, and by this 
further change en, and after the ena of the genitive plural 
had conformed to the nominative and accusative^ this level- 
ing of the vowels to e would reduce the endings of the vowel 
declension to e and es, and those of the consonant to e and 
en, 

3. The Drojyping of Final n and of the Final e. — 
The sloughing off of final n, begun before the Conquest, 
checked for a while, and resumed after the Conquest, followed 
the changes already spoken of. When completed, and few 
are found in Chaucer, the endings left in both declensions 
are e and es only. And now this e final, seldom pronounced 
as a distinct syllable, disappeared from the orthography as 
well as from pronunciation. At its disappearance, had there 
been no adoption from the French nor any extension of 
forms already in Anglo-Saxon, the English noun would be 
even more destitute of case and number endings than it is. 
There was no adoption, but there was an extension. This 
was accomplished by 

4. The Influence of the Masculine and Neuter Gen- 
ders of the Vowel Declension. — The masculine, as seen 
above, had, in the nominative and accusative plural, the 
ending as ; and both genders had, in the genitive singular, 
the ending es. And these two cases of the masculine plural 
and this one case of the masculine and neuter singular, in 
only one of the two declensions, had authority sufficient to 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon,— The Noun, 31 

extend their inflections to the other nouns in the language, 
and to give the law to all foreign nouns seeking admission 
into English. 

By 1550^ this as, changed to es, ceased to be pronounced 
separately^ except when the form of the word required it, 
as in ioxes and houses ; and, when unpronounced, the e was 
omitted from the spelling. So that now to form the geni- 
tive singular, and the plural throughout, we universally 
employ s. The use of the apostrophe^ to distinguish the 
genitive singular from the cases of the plural, arose in the 
seventeenth century, and was fully established by the eight- 
eenth. Its use was subsequently extended to tlie genitive 
plural — standing here after the ending s, and distinguishing 
this case from the other cases of the plural. 

XVI. Exceptions to the Cases just given. — 1. In their 
Number and Names. — The Anglo-Saxon had four cases, 
the English has three. The dative has been dropped, though 
in such expressions as / taught him grammar, I gave Mm 
this advice, we are still obliged to say that him is the indi- 
rect, or dative, object. For accusative we say objective; 
and for genitive, possessive, 

2. In their Offices, — The objective case after to and for 
has largely taken upon itself the office of the Anglo-Saxon 
dative ; and, after o/, much of the function of the genitive. 
In the Anglo-Saxon, the duty of the genitive was manifold. 
It expressed the myriad relations denoted in English by of. 
But now, while theoretically the ending may be attached to 
any noun, practically it is almost restricted to nouns naming 
things that can possess ; and so the old genitive is now not 
improperly called the j^ossessive case. But such uses of 
the case as the following, from the best of authors, and 
with nouns denoting usually measures of time, show that 



32 The English Language. 

the statement respecting restriction must not be rigidly 
taken : — 

An hour^s drive, a years trial, a hair^s breadth, a month's notice, 
earth's surface, harm's way, ivinter's day, water's edge, yard's breadth, 
day's occurrence, week's sport, summer's toil, five minutes' drive. 
state's evidence, and a moment's reflection. 

XVII. Exceptions to the Plural in s. — 1. The Tlurals 

ill n. — Only one Anglo-Saxon noun of the consonant de- 
clension oxa — our ox — retains its old n^ and that only in 
the plural;, oxen. Eyen in Chaucer's Canterbury TaleSy 
only nine of the original an nouns end in n ; these only in 
the plural, and three of the nine had taken on the s ending 
in addition. But tJiree nouns haye in the plural deserted 
from the vowel declension to the consonant — one completely^ 
two in part. Child, Anglo-Saxon cild^ adds en to its old 
plural in ?% — Anglo-Saxon cildru, English childreyi ; and 
Anglo-Saxon brb^or and cu retain n in exce|)tional useS;, 
brethren and kine ; ordinarily, brothers and coivs. 

2. JPlurals in the Nominative and Objective same as 
in the Singular. — There are nouns in English with the same 
form in the singular and the plural ; as, sheep, deer, gross, 
hose, swine, vermin, etc. 

Some have been, others are still, occasionally so used, 
though they haye a form for each number. Shakespeare 
often uses mile, year, fathom, pound, etc., in the plural; 
and even such modern authors as Hawthorne, Holmes, 
Kingsley, and Longfellow say. 

Two yohe of oxen ; of books but few, some fifty score ; four jpair ; 
and the folk of the village. 

Our words of this class largely indicate Aveight, number, 
length — measure of some kind. These exceptions, complete 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon, — Tlie Noun. 33 

or partial^ to the rule for plurals in these cases is explained 
by reference to the paradigm of the Anglo-Saxon vowel 
declension. There Avas a class of nouns in the neuter and 
another in the feminine (the neuter more numerous than 
the feminine)^ that added nothing to the stem in either 
number to form the nominative and the accusative. Our 
unchanged plurals can be traced back directly to Anglo- 
Saxon^ or can be charged to Anglo-Saxon analogy. 

3. Plurals formed by Internal Change, — In English 
to-day sioc nouns^ man, foot, tooth, goose, mouse, and louse, 
add neither s nor n to form the plural, nor is their plural 
like the singular. It is formed by a change of the stent' 
vowel. This irregularity also is inherited from the Anglo- 
Saxon. The Anglo-Saxon /(9^ (foot) may be taken to repre- 
sent them. (Anglo-Saxon o and e are pronounced like long 
and long a.) 

Singular. Plural, 
Norn, fot fet 

Gen. fotes fota 

Dat. fet fotum 

Aec. fot fet 

This change ot o to e in three cases was caused by the 
vowel i, which once followed the stem, and had sufficient 
influence upon the preceding syllable to modify its vowel 
in the direction of i. This variation is called mutation, and 
shows its stricB in many other English words. The i of the 
ending disappeared, as the change of vowel it had wrought 
in the stem was regarded as ample to mark the case. So 
that what was originally euphonic, accompanying the end- 
ing/ and accidentally helping to denote the case, came in 
time to do it exclusively. But the cases constantly occur- 
ring were the nominative and the accusative (objective). 
3 



34 The English Language, 

The dative singular /e^ faded from memory^ and fet (the e 
becomings as usual^ ee in English), whenever found, was 
looked upon as the plural of fot. The same i wrought the 
change which appears in the English plural of the remain- 
ing five^ men, teeth, geese, mice, and lice. In the Anglo- 
Saxon there were eleven of these mutation plurals. 

4. Foreign Plurals in English, — There are foreign 
nouns in English which have brought along their original 
endings. They end in us, like focus and fungus — plurals, 
foci and fungi; in um, as memorandum and stratum, — 
plurals, memoranda and strata ; in is, — oasis 2.^^^ parenthe- 
sis pluralizing as oases Midi parentheses ; in ix, ex, — calix 
and vortex pluralizing variously as calices and calixes, vor- 
tices and vortexes. Hebrew cheruh and seraph have the 
plurals cherubim and seraphim ; and French heau, the plural 
heaux. They all in time bow to the law which imposes s 
or es as the plural ending in English ; but in the process 
of Anglicising they have two forms ; as, seraphim and ser- 
aphs, indices and indexes. Erequently, as in these two 
pairs, these different forms have different meanings assigned 
them. 

XVIII. The Loss of Grammatical Gender. — By grammati- 
cal gender we mean the gender of the noun as determined 
bv its termination or declension, without exclusive, if 
indeed any, reference to the sex, or to the absence of sex, of 
the object named. AVe mean gender as it is in German and 
French to-day. In these, one must remember the gender of 
every noun, since its gender determines the form of the 
adjective used. From this labor the student of English is 
exempt, as the sex of the object determines the gender of 
its name. If the object is a male, the noun is masculine ; 
if a female^ the noun is feminine ; if without sex, neuter. 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Nonn. 35 

As with us neither of the articles nor any adjective changes 
its form on account of gender^ a knowledge even of sex is 
essential only in determining which of the third personal 
pronouns — he, she, or it, in the singular — should be used in 
place of the noun^ if any is employed. 

The total abandonment of grammatical gender by the 
Anglo-Saxon and the Norman-French nouns took place 
largely while the languages were uniting to form the English. 

The loss is an enormous gain in relieving the memory and 
in aiding personification. 



CHAPTER V. 

GRAMMATICAL CHANGES OF THE AXGLO-SAXO:S^ IX BECOM- 
ING ENGLISH. — THE ADJECTIVE. 

XIX. Forms of the Adjective. — 1. Its Declension. — In 

Anglo-Saxon^ the adjective was inflected much as were the 
nouns of the vowel declension. But if a demonstrative or 
a possessive pronoun preceded the adjective, the terminations 
were precisely those of the noun in the n, or consonant, de- 
clension. 

Of this cumbersome mass of endings, matched or a little 
overmatched by the modern German, traces may be seen in 
the e ending of Chaucer^s adjectives in the plural. But by 
1550, even this vowel, to which, as in the noun, the other 
vowels had weakened, disappeared, and the adjective became 
flectionless. 

2. Its Cotnparisoii in er and est. — In our Indo-Euro- 
pean family of languages, the comparative is formed by 
adding a syllable to the simple stem of the adjective ; the 
superlative, by adding a suffix to the comparative. In the 
Teutonic member of the family, is or os was the suffix added 
to form the comparative ; to this, ta was attached to form 
the superlative. 

The s of the comparative is or os, except in worse and less, 
passed over into r. Professor Hadley in his scholarly 
essay On Passive Formations has paralleled this change of 
s to Vy showing that the r in the passive of the Latin verb 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon, — Tlie Adjective, 37 

— in laudor, laudaris, laudatur, laudamur, laudantur, for 
instance — is the s of the reflexive pronoun se {self) changed 
to r. To this essay the reader is referred for the additional 
support which an examination of other languages^, in our 
family and oat of it^ gives to this assigned origin of the r of 
our comparatives. 

The i or o of the comparative suffix of adjectives^ but not of 
adverbs^ was dropped in Anglo-Saxon ; not^ however, without 
occasionally having an effect upon the vowel of the preceding 
syllable^ an effect still seen in elder and eldest, from the posi- 
tive old. The s of the full superlative suffix ista or osta 
did not undergo rhotacism, but remained s. When now 
the i or the o of the Teutonic suffix, dropped in Anglo-Saxon, 
was resumed in early English ; when 'the weakening of it to- 
e. and of the i and o of the superlative to e, took place ; and 
when the final a of that degree, softened to e, was dropped ; 
then the adjective formed its comparative in er and the 
superlative in est, as now. 

3. Its Comparison by Adverbs. — It is said that the first 
comparison by means of adverbs is found in the Ancren 
Riwle, about 1220 — the meste dredful. This method is not 
Anglo-Saxon but Norman-French ; though it is worth noting 
that the adverbs used in the comparison, more and most, less 
and least, are themselves compared in the old way. The 
adverbial comparison, used mainly with polysyllabic adjec- 
tives^ and with participles employed as adjectives, has gained 
so rapidly upon the other that Trench predicted the extinc- 
tion of the comparison in er and est. We do not, as they 
did in Shakespeare^s and in Milton^s day, write preposterous- 
est, flourishing est, and dangerouser ; but^ when we find in 
writers like Hawthorne, Whately, Professor Whitney, Mat- 
thew Arnold, Lowell, Thackeray^ Hadley, George Eliot, 



38 Tlie English Language, 

James Martineau^ Henry Taylor^ Holmes, Black, Browning, 
Carlyle, Hutton, and Kingsley such forms as : — 

Cheerfulest, immensest, beautifulest, correctest, succincter, dis- 
tincter, incessanter, commoner, splendider, manliest, neatliest, dis- 
tinctest, advisablest, profitablest, easilier, nakedest, finest, chiefest, 
supremest, extremest, diviner, divinest, surelier, pitifulest, tiresomest, 
mournfuller, directer, cunninger, etc., 

we may suspect that usage is now setting towards the 
good old Anglo-Saxon form, if ever it had ebbed away 
from it. 

Not long after the introduction of comparison by the use of 
adverbs, it became fashionable to use it to strengthen that in 
er and est, Shakespeare is fond of these double coynpara- 
tives and sux^erlatives. You may count twelve double com- 
paratives, such as more richer, more corrupter, more harder, 
in the single play of King Lear ; and superlatives like most 
worst, most ioldest, most unTcindest are found, as well as 
double comparatives, in his dramas. The usage died out 
soon after Shakespeare's time. 

It may be seen from correctest, incessanter, nakedest, 
chiefest, supremest, divinest, extremest, and directer, quoted 
above, that adjectives Avhich denote qualities not susceptible 
of increase or decrease are nevertheless compared. Indeed, 
such authors as George Eliot, Freeman, Motley, Symonds, 
J. R. Seely, Lowell, Warner, Alford, Holmes, and others 
use universal with more, as, or so before it. 

We add that our irregular adjectives are an inheritance 
from the Anglo-Saxon. 

We close this subject by saying that while there is author- 
ity, respectable in quality and quantity, for the superlative 
degree in the comparison of two things, and for such expres- 
sions as three first, three last, etc., we are able from a wide 



Grammatical Clianges of Anglo-Saxon, — The Adjective, 3^ 

reading of modern authors, undertaken in order to settle these 
and scores of other questions, to pronounce that usage is 
overwhelmingly in favor of the comparative in such cases ; 
and of the expressions ^r^^f three, last three, etc., instead of 
three first, three last^ etc. 



CHAPTER YI. 

^GRAMMATICAL CHA:N^GES OF THE AXGLO-SAXOis" IX BECOM-= 
IXG E:N"GLISH. — THE PROXOUX. 

XX. The Personal Pronouns. — 1. Their JPersistence. — All 

of these, and these in all their cases, except its, are in the 
Anglo-Saxon. Indeed, many of them are Indo-European 
.as well — the j)ronouns, more than any other part of speech, 
surviving in the several languages of the family. Their 
Anglo-Saxon inflections also are retained in English. It is 
to the pronouns that we look for the only distinctive objec- 
tives in English — ?ne, thee, Mm, lier, us, them, and luhom ; 
.all of which, except tvhom, are personal pronouns. 

2. Forms Transferred. — The English case correspond- 
ing to the Anglo-Saxon accusative is the objective. But with 
the exception of it — our objective as well as nominative — the 
English objectives of the personal pronouns are the Anglo- 
Saxon datives. This wholesale transfer of case-forms is 
remarkable. It began even in Anglo-Saxon, and by 1350 
was completed. 

3. Conversion of Anglo-Saxon Detnonstratives into 
English Personals. — Our she is the Anglo-Saxon demon- 
strative seo ; and our third person plurals, they, their, them, 
are the plurals of this same demonstrative. 

4. Change in the Spelling of Some Personal Pro- 
nouns. — By 1350, ic was written i; and afterwards / to 
distinguish it, Lounsbury thinks^ from the prefix i of the 
passive participle. 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Pronoun. 41 

The Anglo-Saxon genitives mln and \l)i had each two 
forms in English^ as they sometimes dropped the n and some- 
times retained it. The double forms were subsequently 
utilized ; mi and thi stood before consonants, and min and 
thin before vowels and silent h. Later still, mi and thi, now 
written my and thy, were placed before vowels also, and min 
and thin, spelled 7mne and thine, were used in the predicate ; 
as in, This book is mine. 

5. Its. — His is the Anglo-Saxon genitive of the masculine 
and the neuter of the third personal pronoun, he and hit, and 
so took the place of nouns denoting persons and of those de- 
noting inanimate things. This in time came to be regarded as 
improper ; and the impropriety seemed the more glaring when, 
by the dropping of h from hit, the relation of it to he, that of 
the neuter to the masculine of the same pronoun, was for- 
gotten. The literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries betrays a growing sense of the impropriety, and 
abounds with substitutes for his as the genitive of it. 
Of it, thereof, her, it, the, and it oivn were all used. 

It had three ribs in the mouth of it, between the teeth of it. — Dan. 
Yii. 5. Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly, thou settlest the 
furrows thereof, thou blessest the springing thereof. — Ps. Ixv. 10. And 
made thy body bare of her two branches. — Tit^is Andron. II. 4, 18. 
That it had it head bit off by it young. — Ki7ig Lear, I. 4, 204. That 
will be thawed from the true quality with that which melteth fools. 
— Jul. Cmsar, III. 1, 41. 

In the folio of 1623, appearing seven years after Shake- 
speare^s death, the editors have it fourteen times where now 
we should use its. Six of the fourteen have own following 
the it J as in. To it own protection and favor of the climate. 
'—Winter's Tale. 

The first appearance, yet noted, of the new coinage its (a 



42 The English Language, 

grammatical blunder^ since the t of hit, or it, is a case end- 
ing, and so its contains the possessive ending s plus the 
nominative neuter ending t) is in 1598. Spenser, 1553-1599; 
and Bacon, 1561-1626, never use its. Its is not found in 
the Bible of 1611, except in Lev. xxv. 5, and not even there 
in the early editions. Shakespeare in the 1623 folio uses if 5* 
nine times and its only once — Made former wonders its. — 
Hen. VIII. I. 1, 18. Seven of these nine appearances are in 
two of his latest plays — The Tempest and Winters Tale. 
Milton uses its only three times in his poetry, though more 
frequently in his prose ; and Trench says that Macaulay, 
1800-1859, declared that he avoided its when he could. 

No one now thinks of shunning its. We quote a sentence 
from the late Professor Phelps to show how frequently its 
may appear in good society without giving offence. 

"I have endeavored to follow it [a prayer] from its inception in a 
human mind, through its utterance by human lips, and in its flight 
up to the ear of Him who is its hearer because he has been also its 
inspirer, and on its journey around the unnumbered points . . . which 
this feeble voice reaches, and on its return from those altitudes with 
its golden train of blessings." 

6. Ye and You. — The Anglo-Saxon ge and eow came 
into English as ye and you. These were used as they were 
in Anglo-Saxon, the one as the nominative, and the other 
as the objective, plural of the second personal pronoun. 
They are always so used in Chaucer, and in the English Bible 
of 1611 ; though this version reflects in this, as in so many 
other particulars, a usage older than that of its day. Con- 

* In the paper conveying to his nephew the desk on which the 
Declaration of Independence was written, Thomas Jefferson, in 1825, 
uses ifs twice. This paper is in the State Department at Washington. 



Grammatical Changes of A7iglo- Saxon, — Tlie Pronoun, 4^ 

fusion between the nominative and the objective of the pro- 
nouns sprang up in the sixteenth century. This was the 
case with ye and yon. They said^ also^ It is me ; between 
you and /. Shakespeare, while employing both ^6 and you, 
does not observe this old distinction between them. Xor do 
we of the present day, although attempts have been made, 
notably by the rhetorician Campbell, a century ago, to 
revive it. We have simply adopted the form yon (originally 
objective) for both nominative and objective. 

7. Thou and You. — In addressing a single person the 
Anglo-Saxons always used the pronoun in the singular. 
But thou has yielded to you, except among the Friends, in 
poetry, and in prayer. In this substitution of the plural for 
the singular, ^^as though the person addressed were as good 
as two or more ordinary people, ^^ which was begun in the 
thirteenth century and completed in the sixteenth, we have 
followed especially the lead of the Dutch and the French. 
On its way to extinction in the speech of polite life and of 
literature^ thou came to be used ^^as the pronoun of (1) 
aifection towards friends, (2) good-humored superiority to 
servants, and (3) contempt or anger to strangers. ^^ All these 
uses are illustrated in Shakespeare and in the literature of 
his day. 

8. Ours, Yours, Hers, and Theirs. — The s of the geni- 
tive, seen in his and then in its, was extended, by a false 
analogy, to our, your, her, and their, when unconnected 
with nouns, and so made double genitives of them — This 
book is ours or yours or hers or theirs. Ourn, yourn, hern, 
his'71, theirn, vulgar and ungrammatical as they are, are 
dialectical, forming their double genitive in n rather than s, 
after the fashion of the n declension. 

In Anglo-Saxon there were the possessive adjective 



44 The EngUsli Language, 

pronouns (1) mln and thin, exactly like the geuitive of the 
first and second personal pronouns, and (2) ure B^Jid eotver 
{our and your), exact duplicates of the genitive plural of 
these same pronouns. So that when, in passing into Eng- 
lish, the genitive of the personal pronouns also was restricted 
to the possessive relation, and the endings of the possessive 
adjectives were dropped, it became difficult to tell whether 
the forms used belonged to the one class of pronouns or to 
the other. 

9. Self. — In the iYnglo-Saxon the ordinary personal pro- 
nouns are used as reflexive loronouns as well. They are so 
used in English, especially in poetry. 

And millions in those solitudes, since first the flight of years began, 
have laid them down in their last sleep. — Br y ant. 

But these pronouns were frequently strengthened by the 
addition of silf, sijlf, seolf, or self — meaning the same, the 
aforesaid — used as an adjective, and agreeing in number and 
case with the pronoun it strengthened. Used to strengthen 
the pronoun when it was the subject of the sentence, the 
pronoun had to be repeated in the dative before self ; as, 
He {liim) self diidi it. This was its customary employment. 
Since about 1350, self has followed the objective of the 
third personal 2^1'onoun, and is attached to it — for self at 
first always stood alone, — and we say himself, herself, itself, 
and themselves ; but in the first and second persons, self is 
appended to the possessive case of the pronouns, and we 
say myself, thyself, onrself, yourself, ourselves, and your- 
selves. 

It would seem that self early had, and all along down has 
retained, something of a substantive force. An adjective can 
stand between it and the possessi'^e of the pronoun ; it can 
be modified by a noun, and by the pronoun one, in the pos- 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon.— Tlie Pronoun. 45 

sessive^ and can stand in the nominative and in the object- 
iye case. 

My very self was yours. — Otway. Till Glory^s self is twilight. — 
Byron. Orpheus' self may heave his head. — Hilton. To thine own 
self be true. — Shakespeare. 

And perhaps one's self is more commonly used now than 
oneself. 

When self united with the pronoun^ it Avas mainly (1) to 
make with it a reflexive, or (2) for the sake of emphasis. 
But the compound could stand alone as nominative. 

Thyself shall see the act. — Shakespeare. Myself am hell. — 3Iilton. 

And this use of self, never very common and almost aban- 
doned, is creeping into favor again, it is thought. There 
can be no doubt that usage is overwhelmingly in favor of 
the siinjde personal pronouns as subject^ and restricts the 
compound with self to the function (1) of emphasis, as in. 
You yourself shall go ; and (2) to that of a reflexive, as 
in, He made himself useful. We have seen that, at least in 
poetry, the simple pronoun, after verbs used transitively, 
takes upon itself this reflexive office ; and after certain 
prepositions, also, ^ij^^on, about, abound, etc., we employ the 
simple pronoun ; but after others, to, iy, for, etc., we use 
the compound. 

The young prince promised to take upon him the obligations. — Scott. 
My uncle stopped a minute to look about him. — Dickens. It is dis- 
puted what aim a translator should propose to himself. — Matthew 
Arnold. He claimed to decide /or himself. — New-York Tribune. 

XXI. The Interrogative Pronouns. — Our interrogatives, 
who, which, and what, in all their forms, are Anglo-Saxon 
interrogatives ; and even our luhy is traceable to the same 
parentage. But, as has been said, our wh is Anglo-Saxon 



46 The English Language. 

hio. Our interrogatiye tvhose and tvhom are restricted to 
persons^ but the corresponding Anglo-Saxon forms could be 
used when mere things were asked about. Our lohich is a 
compound of hivl {luhat) and lie (like), and is an adjective, 
as ^^ell as an interrogative pronoun. Wltether, novr a con- 
junction, is an Anglo-Saxon interrogative from hica {who) 
and the comparative suffix ther. It came into English with 
its two functions of adjective and interrogative pronouns, as 
may be seen in. 

Whether is greater the gift or the altar. — Matt, xxiii. 19. Unsure to 
whether side it would incline. — Spenser. 

In the seventeenth century^ tchicli took the j)lace of whether 
in both these offices. 

In the Elizabethan period there was much confusion re- 
specting the case-forms of the interrogative ivho, as there 
was respecting those of the personal and demonstrative pro- 
nouns. Who often stood where now we should place whom. 

Who hath he left behind him general ? — King Leai\ TV. 3, 6. Wlio 
does the wolf love 9—Coriol. II. 1, 8. With ivho 9— 0th. IV. 2. 99. To 
who 9 — Cymh. IV. 2, 75. Who have we here ? — Winter's Tale, IV. 3, 
636. 

It is not always easy, even now, to keep the right forms 
of the interrogatives. How common such questions as, Who 
did you find there ? Who did he marry ? How easily even 
Hawthorne glides into. And who do you think I saw stand- 
ing on deck ? 

XXII. — The Relative Pronouns. — In Anglo-Saxon a real 
relative pronoun was wanting. To express the subordinacy 
of an accessory clause the language used the indeclinable f ^ 
(1) alone or (2) in conjunction with the demonstrative sey 
seo, \cet, or (3) in connection with the personal pronoun. 

1. That. — The office of the relative was first assumed in 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo Saxon, — The Pronoun, 47 

English Dj tliat, the neuter of the old Anglo-Saxon demon- 
strative se, seo, \cet. This is in general use to-day, relating 
to nouns or pronouns of any gender^ person, or case, in eithei 
number. Being the oldest relative, the author of the Hum- 
ile Petition of Who and Which was infelicitous in his choice 
of a verb when he makes these two pronouns say, '^ We . . . 
kept up our dignity and honor many years, till the Jack- 
Sprat that supplanted us/" 

2. Which and Who, — Very soon after the Conquest the 
interrogative ivhich was employed as a relative to aid that, 
and, like that, related to nouns denoting persons as well as 
to those naming things. The interrogative ivho was meta- 
morphosed into a relative somewhat later. The transition 
of these interrogatives to relatives was easy. We might, after 
Abbott and Whitney, illustrate the transfer thus : Who 
steals my purse ? He steals trash = He who steals my purse 
steals trash. Which barked ? I see the dog = I see the 
dog tuhich barked. 

The relative whicli, like the interrogative, is used as an 
adjective. AVhen so used, the noun that which modifies is 
repeated exactly or in substance from the preceding clause. 
The repetition gives definiteness, and prevents doubt as to 
the reference. 

If she did play false the fault was hers, which fault lies, etc. — King 
John, I. 1, 119. She took the opportunity of . . . going to Bath ; 
for which place she set out. — Fielding. Ennius writes in regard to 
Homer ; of which poet he was, etc. — Lounshury. 

Used as an adjective or as a pronoun, tvliich is frequently 
preceded by the. Compare the French lequel. 

There he espied his roll, the which he with trembling and haste 
catched up. — Bunyan, Let gentleness my strong enforcement be, in 
the which hope I blush. — As You Like It^ II. 7, 19. The better part 



48 The English Language. 

oi valor is discretion ; in the which hetter part I have saved my lifa 
—I. Hen. IV. V. 4, 125. 

Which was sometimes followed by that. 

A daughter ivhich that was called Sophie. — Chaucer. 

But oftener than otherwise^ vjhich has long been^ and still 
is^ used without the before it^ without tliat following it, and 
without the antecedent^ repeated precisely or in substance, 
after it. 

3. Wlio^ What^ That^ and Which Distinguished. — 
At firsts toho, tuhich, and that related (1) to words denoting 
mere animals and things^ and (2) to words denoting persons. 
But later, tchicli dislodged ivho from the first position^ and 
who and that drove whicli from the second. This displace- 
ment began in the seventeenth century, and is now complete. 
That performs both offices^ though it cannot do either after 
a preposition — we cannot say, There is tlie Ijoy or the look for 
that I am looking. The objective lohom has followed the 
example of ivho ; and ivhose, as the possessive of who, also 
refers to j)ersons. 

What {hivcet) is the neuter of who (Jiwa), and is used 
only when things are spoken of. When used in the nomi- 
native and in the objective, it is noiv never j)receded by an 
antecedent, and seldom has one following it. We can say, 
W^hat man dares that I dare ; but we should usually say, 
AYhat man dares I dare. Of whose, the possessive of what, 
and meaning of which , Professor Meiklejohn concedes but 
half the truth in saying that it "may be used^'^ ; and Mason 
is wholly wrong in claiming that it is ^^ rarely employed 
except in poetry. ^^ In our special study of authors (all 
prose), to which reference has been made, we have found it 
hundreds of times — frequently twenty-five or thirty times iu 
three hundred pages. 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Pronoun. 49 

The relative that is nearly always restrictive ; that is, it 
introduces some characteristic needed to make the thing 
definite^ which^ while adding to the meaning, narrows the 
scope of the antecedent. 

All that I have, and all tliat I am, and all tliat I hope in this life, I 
am now ready here to stake upon it. — Wehder. In 1685, Louis XIV. 
signed the ordinance tliat revoked the Edict of Nantes. — Green, J, R. 

Who and tvhich are often tinrestrictive, but not always 
so. In this office they introduce a circumstance additional, 
not needed to define the thing, and not limiting the ante- 
cedent, and have the meaning of a7id he, and she, and it, or 
and they. 

Manslaughter, which is the meaning of the one, is the same as man's 
laughter, which is the end of the other. — Holmes. Charles II., who 
never said a foolish thing, gave the English climate the highest praise. 
— Lowell. 

But who and tvhich iyitrodiice restrictive clauses as 

well^ and so share with that the function just assigned it. 

Writers who have no present are pretty sure of having no future. — 
Lowell. An artist is bound to give due weight to the motives which 
would claim authority over him in other acts of life. — Hutton. 

This wide use of who and tvhich in restrictive clauses is 
not accounted for by saying that they occur after this, these, 
those, and even that, and hence are used to avoid the disagree- 
able repetition of sound which that after these words would 
cause. This may frequently be the reason for the employ- 
ment of toho and tvhich in restrictive clauses ; but our 
collected instances enable us to affirm (1) that tvho and tvhich 
stand in such clauses oftener without than with those pro- 
nouns preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener 
than that itself. Especially is this true of tvhich. 
4 



50 The English Language. 

Instead of ivhich in relative clauses, tvhen and where and 
wJierein and ivliereiy and lohereof and whereto and lohereon 
are used. We add that loho, ivliich, and tliat are very ofteo 
omitted when, if used, they would stand in the objective. 
Particularly is this true of icMch and tliat. 

The work we have accomplished is the proper commentary of the 
methods we have pursued. — Tyndall. There's not a joy the world can 
give like that it takes away. — Byron, 

Macaulay is the only writer we have found who uniformly 
inserts the relative. 

Again, we may say that, unlike that, the pronoun tvhich 
"inay relate to a whole clause. This office of ivhich has 
been scouted by those critics who try to impose a grammar 
upon authors rather than take their own from authors. 
But very many illustrations can be given. 

The sails turned, the corn was ground, after ivhicli the wind ceased. — 
Tyndall. Unless Spenser's publisher ... is not to be trusted, which 
of course is possible. — Church. If he had not kissed the keeper's 
daughter, which is far from improbable. — Dowden. He [the Saxon] is 
wanting in taste, which is as much as to say that he has no sense of 
proportion. — Lowell. And, which became him like a prince indeed, he 
made a blushing 'cital of him^Qlf.— Shakespeare. The particulars of the 
controversy have not reached us, tvhich is ever to be lamented. — 
Irvi?ig. 

Lastly, tvhich may relate to the gist of a clause or the 

assertive part of it. 

The person takes in hand the regulation of his own morality, luhich 
it is hardly safe for any one to do. — Hamerton. He ought to come to 
church, which he never does. — Kmgsley. They are wasting time, to 
do which elegantly ... is the highest achievement of civilization. 
' — Lowell. 

XXIII. Some of the Adjective Pronouns. — We select a few. 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — Tlie Pronoun, 51 

only those concerning the proper use of which there is still a 
question. 

1. Some, — Some (Anglo-Saxon sum) at first meant a cer- 
tain. This meaning it still has in somebody and something. 
But it came early in English to denote a vague number or 
quantity — some people, some water, some are aged. 

Some in the sense of about may precede numerals, 
Shakespeare abounds in this use of it ; it may be found twice 
in a single Scene, the second, of Act II., of Julius Ccesar, 
It is perfectly good Anglo-Saxon as well. Upon this use of 
i^ome, the critics described above have served an injunction ; 
but usage disregards the injunction. 

And vile it were for some three suns to store and hoard myself.— 
Tennyson. Enduring some ninety years. — Milne, Some four persons 
in the length and breadth of London. — Newman, Thus came the 
jocund spring in Killing worth, in fabulous days some hundred years 
ago. — Longfellow, A baby of some three months. — Hawthorne. Of 
books but few — some fifty score for daily use. — Holmes. 

We could give, from the best authors of the day, number- 
less examples of this use of some, 

2, Both and All. — Ordinarily, these are adjectives, and 
belong to some noun or pronoun. Bat, in spite of the in- 
terdict of the critics, they may be followed by of and an 
objective. 

Both of us SiVQ wooing gales of festal happiness. — De Quincey, All 
of the dialects of our branch. — Whitney. Both of them were notori- 
ous for their loyalty ; loth of them were of unspotted virtue ; hoth of 
them have left a reputation. — Buclcle, Both of the girls have plenty 
of . . . humor. — Thackeray. They were both of them fertile and 
active thinkers. — J. S. Mill. We are all of us imaginative. — George 
Eliot. 

Such sentences abound. 



52 The English Language, 

3. One, — One (Anglo-Saxon an) is (1) a numeral adjec- 
tive — One God, one law^, one element ; (2) a definite adjec- 
iiYQ^One evening after the sheep Avere folded ; is used (3) 
instead of a substantive — Our contract is an old one, The 
Holy 07ie ; and (4) as an indefinite adjective pronoun. It 
is of one with this function — that of on in French, of 7nan 
in German and in Anglo-Saxon, that of iody in. If a iody 
meet a body, — it is of this one that we shall first speak. These 
sentences illustrate this use of it. 

One cannot always be studying one's own work. — Matthew Arnold, 
It does not consist in buying what one needs for one's own comfort or 
pleasure. — R. G. White. Much as one is dazzled by Choate's marvel- 
ous command of diction, still one cannot avoid thinking of his style in 
the reading. — Phelps. One can be happy with many little desagre- 
ments when one sees that the people are determined to be civil to one, 
— Thackeray, 

Where, as in this last quotation, the iteration of one may 
offend, a j)ersonal pronoun may be used instead. This sub- 
stitution is proscribed by the critics described above, but 
usage allows it. 

It is a good sign to have one^s feet grow cold when he h writing. 
— Holmes. One feels as if he could eat grass himself. — Burroughs. 
The higher 07ie is elevated on the see-saw balance of fortune, the lower 
must be his subsequent depression. — Irving. One is arrived, 07ie is at 
his ancient lodging of the Hotel Bristol. — Thackeray. 

As seen above, one may take the apostrophe in the j)os- 
sessive. 

It is one in the third use described above, its use as a sub- 
stantive, that takes the plural ones. This plural is exceed- 
ingly common, though condemned by many who are igno- 
rant of what usage approves or regardless of it. 

These early years we know were busy ones. — Church. The female 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Pronoun. 53 

figures stand out in the canvas almost as prominently as the male ones, 
— Lecky. Concrete ideas must precede abstract ones. — Marsh. 

4. The One — The Other. — So far as we know^ there is 
no question as to which of two things previously mentioned 
each of these phrases refers to. The one, like the former, 
points to the first ; and the other, like the latter, to the second. 

David Deans opened his business, and told down the cash ; Dumbie- 
dikes steadily inclined his ear to tlie one, and counted the other with 
great accuracy. — Scott. It were better to have no opinion of God at 
all than such an opinion as is unworthy of him ; for the one is unbelief, 
the other is contumely. — Bacon. Turn from Walter Scott to Byron. 
The one is healthy in feeling and expression, the other is cold, bitter, 
and satirical. — Hadley. 

But usage is not quite uniform. From our data we should 
say that the slips are nearly one in ten. 

5. Any One Else^s or Any One^s Else, — Any, 7io^ and 
some may combine with one or lody and be followed by 
else. When such combinations are made in the possessive, 
where shall the 's be placed ? We are assured that it is 
^^ better grammar and more euphonious to consider efee as 
an adjective ; ^' and are enjoined by the dogmatizing critics, 
either to avoid the combination or '^'^ to form the possessive 
by adding the apostrophe and s to the word that else quali- 
fies.^^ W^e have as yet found but four instances of the 
form recommended. 

This is as much Sir William Plamilton's opinion as any one's else — 
J. S. Mill. 

We have seen it once in Hudson and twice in Miss Cum- 
mins's Lamplighter. But over against these four Ave can 
array more than forty in which else receives the 's. 

My happiness is no more desirable than anybody else's. — Martineau, 
Beyond anybody else's son in Middlemarch. — George Eliot. One of 



54 The English Language, 

those that just go right on, do their own work and everybody else's.^ 
Holmes. The secret was his own and no one else's. — Kingsley. Cer- 
tainly not! nor aiiy one else's ropes. — RusMii. 

Besides these authors we may instance Howells^ Blacky 
Thackeray ;, and many others ; and such papers and month- 
lies as '-'The Tribune/' ''The Christian Union/' ''Harper's 
Monthly/' "The Century/' and "The Atlantic." 

6. Each and Every, — These pronouns^ like the rest^ are 
from the Anglo-Saxon. They are distributive^ and call at- 
tention to the individuals forming a collection. Mason says, 
" When each is used, the prominent idea is that of the sub- 
division of the collection into its component parts ; when 
every is used, the prominent idea is, that the individuals 
taken together make up some whole." 

7. Each Other and One Another. — The critics with one 
voice cry out that we must use each other only when two 
things are mentioned, and that with more than two things 
we must employ one another. 

We may use each other and one anotlier as they insist. 
About this there is no dispute, but there is no peremptory 
must compelling this. The best of authors employ these two 
phrases interchangeably, especially making each other do duty 
where these censors prescribe one another. Many use only 
one of them. We did not, at any rate, find each other in 
our three hundred pages of Stedman, or of Huxley ; we did 
not find one another in the same number of j)ages in E. G. 
White, Hamerton, Warner, Everett, Lowell, or Motley ; but 
each uses his favorite phrase alike when speaking of two and 
of more than two. Out of possible hundreds of illustrations, 
here are four. 

The three modes of shaping a proposition, distinct as they are from 
each other, follow each other in natural sequence. — Newman. Mankiyid 



Grammatical Changes of A7iglo-Saxon, — The Pronoun, 55 

are gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to themselves. — 
J. S. Mill. The two races soon came to be distinguished from one an- 
other. — J. R. Green. How do the mind and the universe communicate 
with one another, and what security have we that they find each other 
out ? — Martineau. 

8. Either and Neither. — Either and neither ^ if held to 
their etymology^ could be employed only where two things 
are spoken of. And we are told^ "Either and neither ap- 
plied to any number more than one of two objects is illegiti- 
mate and ungrammatical/" ^^ When more than two things 
are referred to^ any and none should be used instead of either 
and neither. ^^ 

Any and none are proper in such cases ; but either and 
neither have chipped the shell of their etymology, and are 
also proper where ^"^more than two things are referred to/^ 
This extension of their application goes back to the Anglo- 
Saxon, and is not, as we are told, " of late introduction/^ 

Neither of the three competitors would have a chance against her. — 
Higginson. Fish, flesh, fowl, and substances that were 7ieither. — Bur- 
roughs. The tense employed at the outset was neither past, present, 
nor future, but all of these combined, doing duty as either. — Whitney. 
Bryden, Pope, and Wordsworth have not scrupled to lay a profane 
hand on Chaucer, a mightier genius than either. — G. P. Marsh. A 
man may use it as trustingly and as soberly as he would use either 
of these [gravitation, light, and electricity']. — Phelps. The author of 
either of the Three Parts of King Ren. VI. — E. G. White. Is it pos- 
sible that neither of these causes [he had just given six], that not all 
combined could blast this bud of hope ? — Edward Everett. As may be 
observed in either of his four Pastorals. — Stedman. If all or either 
of us [myself, wife, and dog] miscarry in the journey. — Ben Jonson. 

We have found more than thirty sentences like the above. 

The use of either and neither, as conjunctions, with more 

than two nouns — as in the above quotation from W^hitney, 



56 The English Language. 

and in this from Huxley^ " I cannot verify it either by toucli 
or taste or smell or hearing or siV/A^ ^' — is exceedingly com- 
mon. And this employment of either and neither lias like- 
wise been put under ban. 

9. Xone. — None (Anglo-Saxon ne an, not one) is not 
used before a noun. ^' It differs from no as mine from my.^' 
Mason says, ^^ Its substantive use as a singular is becoming 
obsolete; and Professor Meiklejohn says, '^ None is always 
plural. ^^ Others claim that none is anchored to its etymol- 
ogy, and so is properly used only in the singular. But if 
usage furnishes the standard, both of these dicta are mislead- 
ing. Often the context leaves it questionable whether none 
is singular or plural ; but of our collected instances, in none 
of which is the number of none in doubt, about four-sevenths 
are in the singular. 

None of those who inhabited it are now among the living. — Wehster. 
None of our words in common use are new formations. — Bain. Where 
none admire, 'tis useless to excel ; where none are beaux, 'tis vain to be 
a belle. — Lyttleton. None are more hkely to study the public tran- 
quility. — Irving, None of us will risk Ms life — Burke. There was 
none to which I more frequently gave a meditative hour. — Everett. 
None hears thy voice right, now he is gone. — llatthew Arnold. There 
is none like her. — Tennyson, 



CHAPTEE VII. 

GRAMMATICAL CHANGES OF THE AKGLO-SAXOK IK BECOM- 
ING ENGLISH. — THE YERB. 

THE OLD, OR STRONG, ANGLO-SAXON CONJUGATION 
Endings of the JPresent Tense, 



Indicative, 


Subjunctive. 


Imperative 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


1. e. 


) 


2. — . 


2. est. 


[e. 


Plu. 


3. e«. 


) 


2. a^. 


Flu, 


Plu. 


Infinitive. 


^') 


) 


an. 


2. I a^. 


yen. 


Participle. 


3.) 


) 


ende. 



Endings of the I^reterite^ or Past Tense. 



1. ~. 

2. e. 



1. 

2.^ on. 

8. 



Participle, 

en. 



I en. 



58 The English Language. 

THE NEW, OR WEAK, CONJUGATION. 
Endings of the Present Tense, 

Indicative. Subjunctive, Imperativeo 

1. e. \ Sing. 

2. est. I e. 2. a^ e, — . 



3. e«. 



2. a^. 



\.\ \ Infinitive. 

2. \ ab. \ en. an. 

Participle. 

ende. 



Endings of the Preterite^ or Past Tense. 

1. de. \ 

2. dest. V de. Participle. 

3. de. ) de. 

'■} ^ 

2. ^ don, V den. 

3. ) ) 

XXIV. How the Two Conjugations Arose. — The original 
Indo-European method of indicating completed action^ action 
in past time, was repetition of the root. This naturally 
denoted that the act expressed by this syllable was finished. 
These two syllables tended to run together^, and in the con- 
traction resulting^ especially in the Teutonic member of the 
family^ the radical vowel was changed. This change, inci- 
dental and euphonic at first, came to be regarded as in itself 
a sufficient sign of past time. 

But in different verbs the vowels or diphthongs resulting 
from the contraction differed, and something less ''^irregular 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon, — The Verb, 59 

and seemingly capricious^'' was needed. This need was 
finally met by affi^joing did^ the reduplicated preterite of do, 
to the verb ; and this did, running down in Anglo-Saxon 
to de, and in English to ed, came at length to form the 
preterite^ or past tense, of most verbs in these two languages. 
Those verbs in which this vowel-change, resulting from 
reduplication, was looked upon as sufficiently indicative of 
past action or state constitute the conjugation termed strong 
— strong, because the verbs in it are able to form the past 
tense without the aid of another verb ; those which for this 
purpose invoke the help of did constitute the conjugation 
called weak. Since most verbs in Anglo-Saxon and in 
English fall into this last class, these are also called ^^ regit- 
lar^^^ and those, ^^ irregular, ^^ 

XXV. Wherein the Conjugations Agree and Wherein they 
Differ. — We have set down the endings of only two tenses, 
the present and the past. And this because these are the 
only tenses in which the verb has endings to indicate person 
and number in the several modes. 

The two conjugations agree joerfectly in other tenses, 
and in one of the two whose endings are given above. Verbs 
in the two conjugations have in \h^ loresent the same termi- 
nations, singular and plural, in the indicative and in the 
subjunctive, and the same infinitive and participle endings. 

The two conjugations differ only in the past tense, and 
here only in two particulars, (1) the strong changes the 
radical vov/el to indicate tense, while the weak employs d ; 
and (2) the endings of the strong in the indicative and the 
participle are not quite the same as those following the d in 
the weak. 

XXVI. Loss of Verbs from the Strong Conjugation. — In his 
English Past and Present, Trench sorrowfully descants upon 



60 The English Language. 

the desertion of strong verbs to the weak^ and predicts the 
speedy surrender of the few yet loyal to the old flag. But a 
more thorough study of literature would have stayed the 
grief of the good Dean, and we should have been spared his 
gloomy prophecy. The indefatigable Lounsbury has ascer- 
tained (1) that there were over three hundred simple strong 
verbs in Anglo- Saxon ; (2) that one hundred of these are 
not found in English at all ; and (3) that more than one hun- 
dred of the remainder have gone over from the strong to 
the weak. 

But he has also ascertained (1) that only twelve strong 
verbs in Chaucer^s Canterbury Tales have since deserted to 
the weak ; (2) that only four verbs^ strong in the Tales, are 
both weak and strong now ; (3) that only three^ partially weak 
in the Tales, are now wholly weak ; while (4) four^ weak in 
the Tales, are strong now. And^ comparing literature two 
hundred years later than the Chaucerian with our own^ the 
Professor says^ " Modern English has lost not a single one 
[strong verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; ^' and adds, 
'' The present disposition of the language is not only to hold 
firmly to the strong verbs it already possesses, but . . . even 
to extend their number whenever possible. ^^ And he ad- 
duces a few, as shine, strive, shalce, and others, which, 
since 1600, have dropped ed in the preterite, and now form 
the tense by variation of the stem-vowel. 

This, however, should be said, that new English verbs, 
from whatever source derived, form their past tense and past 
participle in ed as regularly as new nouns add s to form 
the plural. So that, while the weak conjugation is no 
longer recruiting itself from the strong, its numbers are 
slowly increasing. 

XXVII. Changes in the Present and Past Tenses. — 1. The 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Verb, 61 

Third Person Indicative Singular, — In the third person 
singular indicative present of both conjugations the Anglo- 
Saxon 6 {th), even before the Conquest, frequently softened 
to s in the North of England. But in Middle and Southern 
England the regular th was continued even during what is 
called the Middle English Period of our literature, 1350- 
1550. Chaucer almost always uses this th, and the English 
Bible invariably. The s from the North gradually pushed its 
way, and, by the middle of the seventeenth century, became 
the prevailing form. 

2. Dropping Final Letters. — After the Conquest the 
fashion obtained in verbs, as in nouns, of dropping the final 
n after the preceding a or o had softened into e. Then this e 
disappeared, first from pronunciation and then from the word ; 
though in the infinitive and elsewhere it is still sometimes 
retained to show that the preceding vowel is long, as in bitey 
but more frequently lost, as in hear. 

In the indicative plural present of both conjugations, 
the Anglo-Saxon termination, ath, etJi, was continued in the 
South of England ; but, throughout the central portion, en 
— an intrusion of the subjunctive en, some think — became the 
established form. Modern English seized upon this en ; and, 
discarding the n wholly and the e partially, ' ' caused all the 
persons of the plural to assume the same form as the infini- 
tive and the first person singular. ^^ And thus they stand 
to-day. 

In the subjunctive the n and the e vanished as in the indic- 
ative. 

3. Tiie Imperative. — The imperative was used in the 
second person, singular and plural. The plural ending ath, 
weakened to eth, was sometimes dropped, and the two num- 
bers were often use*d interchangeably. This result may have 



62 The EngUsli Language, 

been hastened by the substitution of ye, afterward yoti^ for 
tlioit in address. Later, the phiral ending went out of use, as 
did the singular, when the verb had one, by the weakening of 
a to e and the disuse of e. 

4. The Present Participle, — The Anglo-Saxon present 
participle of both conjugations ended in ende. The final e 
Avas dropped here, as elsewhere, and the end sometimes ap- 
peared in the Xorth as and and in the South as ind. But 
there was a verbal noun in Anglo-Saxon in %ing, afterwards 
ing. The meaning of this and of the present participle was 
the same, and the sameness of function brought about a 
sameness of form — ing. 

5. Exceptional Preterites. — The preterite of some weak 
verbs in Anglo-Saxon had, between the stem and the per- 
sonal endings, either the connective o or ia, to which the full 
Teutonic connective aja had been reduced. When a con- 
nective e had been inserted between the stem and the per- 
sonal endings of verbs that did not have o or ia, and these 
two had in English weakened to e, then e became the gen- 
eral connective of the weak preterite. And when the don of 
the plural indicative had weakened to den, and the n of this 
mode and of the subjunctive plural den had disappeared, and 
the e preceding the n had also vanished, then ed became, as 
now, the full ending appended to the stem to form the 
weak preterite. 

But if the e in the ed is not pronounced, this ed often has 
(1) the sound of t, as in kissed and looked ; often (2) not, as 
in spoiled and spilled ; often (3) the same verb has two 
forms and two sounds, as in spoiled and spoilt, spelled and 
spelt — the unpronounced e in the second form has fallen 
out, and the d, pronounced t, has become t. In some verbs 
(4) the ed is always a separate syllable, as in greeted and 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Verb. 63 

lifted ; in others (5) it is so sometimes, and sometimes has 
run down to t, as in huilded and iuilt, girded and girt. If 
the stem ends in d or t, and the e of ed is omitted^ the d 
following (6) may go too ; and so verbs with the same forms 
in the preterite^ the infinitive^ the first person singular^ and 
the three persons of the plural indicative are found in Eng- 
lish. Read, spread, and put illustrate this. All the forms 
are alike in pronunciation also ; or^ as in read, differ but 
slightly — read of the participle and preterite is pronounced 
red. 

6. The d of the Past Participle. — The d of the past 
participle is not, like the d of the preterite, from did. It is 
the t of the Indo-European suffix ta, changed to d. When, 
as detailed above, e became the general connective uniting 
the d to the stem of the verb, then the participle ending ed 
was precisely like that of the preterite. The changes that 
befell this ed befell that. 

7. The en of Past Participles. — What has been said of 
the dropping of the final }i and the preceding e does not hold 
rigorously of the en of the past participle strong. Many 
participles (1) retain it in full; as, ieaten, fallen, spohen ; 
some (2) retain the n and drop the e ; as, draivn, flown, lain ; 
some (3) have two forms, one with the en and one without 
it ; as, shrunhen and shrunk, trodden and trod ; and some 
(4) have dropped the en entirely ; as, sprung, sung, and stung. 

If, now, we carry back and apply to the paradigms at the 
head of this chapter what has been said of the softening of 
the other vowels to e, and of the dropping of this e and the 
consonants, we shall see that the Anglo-Saxon verb has been 
nearly stripped of its inflections in becoming English, and 
presents us now little else than its bare stem. 

The inflections remaining are the est of the second 



64 The English Language, 

person indicative present singular ; the s of the third per- 
son ; the ed of the weak preterite throughout ; the st added 
to this ed in the second person singular ; the ed of the jDast 
participle weak ; the ing of the participle present ; and the 
en or n of the strong joarticiple past. 

XXVIII. Some Changes not Noted in the Paradigms. — 
1. The Anglo- Saocon Gerund. — A form of the Anglo- 
Saxon infinitive ended in anne or enne. This^ thought to 
be the dative case of the infinitive^ was called a gerund, and 
was employed mainly to indicate purpose. It was always 
preceded by the preposition to. Dropping the second n 
and the final e, this gerund reduced to the form of the 
ordinary infinitive. When, dropping the n remaining, the 
Anglo-Saxon infinitive came into English, the to, hitherto 
found before it only when the infinitive was a gerund, w^as 
extended to the infinitive in all its uses, and so we find it to- 
day. When the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the 
infinitive, it became usual to prefix for to the to. For to 
with the infinitive is often found in Elizabethan literature. 

Which /o?' to prevent I have in quick determination thus set it down. 
— ITani. III. 1, 162. What went ye out for to see ? — Luke vii. 24. 
Keeper, you are irreligious /or to talk and cavil thus. — Tliackeray, 

Except in such playful lines as these of Thackeray's, for 
to is wholly inadmissible now. 

2. Double Preterite Forms, — Xearly four-fifths of all 
the strong verbs in English had in Anglo-Saxon a stem- 
vowel, in the first and third persons indicative preterite, 
unlike that of the three persons in the plural. This distinc- 
tion between the two i^ersons of the singular and the 
three of the i>?ifraZ had largely given way in Chaucer's 
time. The singular stem had supplanted the plural ; the 
plural, the singular ; or both were used indiscriminately. 



(Irammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon,— The Verb, 65 

But to this distinction are to be traced such double forms 
in the preterite as saiig and sung, sprang and siorung, occa- 
sionally used in English even yet. About one-half of the 
strong verbs in English had the saTvie stem-vowel in the 
Anglo-Saxon partieiple as in the plural preterite indica- 
tive ; drincan, for example, had dranc in the first and the 
third singular, and drunc as the plural stem and the stem 
of the participle. When then in English we find drunk 
side by side with dranh in the preterite, we are troubled to 
tell whether the participle drunk has elbowed its way into 
that tense, or whether drunk is a survival of the Anglo- 
Saxon plural of that tense. 

3. The JPrefioc ge. — The prefix ge used in Anglo-Saxon 
with many parts of speech, especially with the past participle 
of verbs, passed in English into y or ^, as in Shakespeare^s 
y-clept, y-clad, y -slaked, and disappeared almost completely 
in his time. 

4. The Potential Mode. — Some grammarians do not lay 
down an Anglo-Saxon potential mode. But the originals of 
our may, can, might, must, ivould, could, and should were 
used in Anglo-Saxon as we use them now, if we except our 
present perfect and past perfect of this mode. Examples 
in abundance might be quoted. 

5. The Future Tense. — There was no simple future 
in Anglo-Saxon — one with personal terminations containing 
some trace of the substantive verb, as in Latin ; or made up 
of forms of the verb have, as the French are of the corre- 
sponding verb avoir. This absence of a simple future, per- 
petuated in English, and shared by other Teutonic lan- 
guages, has been commented upon by many and accounted 
for by some — notably by George P. Marsh. 

The duties of the future tense the Anglo-Saxons laid in 



66 The English Language, 

part upon the shoulders of the present. For the rest they 
seized upon the verbs of volition and necessity^ tvillan and 
scitlan, our will and shall, words sternly ^'indicative of a 
present purpose^ determination^ or duty/^ not of '^ prophecy 
or of expectation^ prediction, or even hope,'* and made a 
future by combining their present indicative forms with 
infinitives. This method survives in English — as^ indeed^, 
does the other^ in such expressions as I go, but I return ; To- 
morrow is Saturday — the two words retaining in these com- 
binations much of their original force. So also they did in 
Anglo-Saxon. But the English distinction between shall 
and to ill, in the several persons^ the Anglo-Saxon had not 
reached. This distinction Marsh pronounces a '^'^ verbal 
quibblC;, serving no end but to embarrass/^ a distinction 
which he predicts will soon disappear. 

6. The Compound Tenses. — The present perfect and the 
past perfect were formed originally in Anglo-Saxon b}^ pre- 
fixing to the past participles of transitive verbs the forms of 
liahban {have); and to the past particijDles of intransitive 
verbs, the forms of luesan, or heon (be), and this both in the 
indicative and in the subjunctive. But hahba a encroeiched 
upon the territory of beon. We form these tenses in the 
same way, and have continued and extended the use of have 
in place of be before intransitive participles. March con- 
cedes that ^^ Have with an intransitive does not bear analy- 
sis ;^^ but says, ''We do not want two tense-signs for the 
same tense. ^' And so have, displacing be (which before in- 
transitives ''would be theoretically more correct,'^ Wliitney, 
also, allows), has come to be the common auxiliary in these 
two compound tenses in the active voice. 

Still, be is found in these tenses as an auxiliary, especially 
with verbs of motion. 



Orammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Verb, 67 

When they were come out of the synagogue. — Mark i. 29. Sir Roger 
is gone out of the club. — Addison. The time is gone by. — J. S. Mill. 
The middle of August is come at Isist.— King sleg. Thou art fled to 
brutish beasts. — Shakespeare. They to their grassy couch, these to 
their nests, were slunk. — Milton. The mountains are vanished. — Byron. 

We have dropped the present perfect and the past perfect 
subjunctive^ and have added the future perfect indicative. 
This is formed by prefixing to a past participle some form of 
shall and tuill and the infinitive liave. 

It is worth noticing that occasionally in early Anglo-Saxon 
we find the participles, in the active voice of these com- 
pound tenses^ agreeing in gender^ number^ and case with 
the noun or pronoiui in the accusative. This is seen in the 
ending of the participle, and explains the origin of these 
compound tenses. The form of hahhan used had the noun 
or pronoun as its object, and this object was modified by the 
participle used as an adjective. But when the primitive 
idea of possession had faded out of hahhan in these combina- 
tions, and the function of qualification had disappeared from 
the participle, then the verb became a mere formative ele- 
ment ; and, uniting with the participle, formed a compound 
tense. How completely the idea of possession has faded out 
of has, have, and had in these tenses is shown by the fact 
that we can say of one not only. He has found his coat, but, 
He has lost his coat ; though in the one case he has the gar- 
ment, and in the other we affirm that he has it not. So, too, 
when has or have or had is used with an intransitive parti- 
ciple, as in. He has gone, its force as a form- word only is re- 
tained. And to this state at had come even in Anglo-Saxon. 

7. The JProgressive Form. — Continuing action or being 
in any tense of the English verb in the active voice can be 
expressed by uniting the present participle of that verb with 



68 The English Language, 

the forms of he in that tense. We can trace back this pro- 
gressive form to the Anglo-Saxon^, in at least the present, 
past, and future tenses. 

8. I>o, as a Substitute for Other Verbs. — The use of 

do to supply the place of a verb in the preceding clause is 
a frequent idiom of the language. It prevents repetition, 
and so is euphonic ; it abbreviates the expression, and hence 
is energetic. This use of do goes back to Anglo-Saxon. 
While standing in the place of some preceding verb, this do 
does not necessarily stand for the precise form previously 
used. That precise form cannot always be repeated instead 
of the substitute, cannot always be repeated after it. 

Praying him to raise up her son ... as he did the widow Drusiana. 
— ^Ifric. Women icill again study Greek, as Lady Jane Grey did, 
— Arnold. Nothing worse happens to you than does to all nations. — 
Burke. Dalgetty bores you almost as much as he would do in real life. 
— Hutton. The face sliines as the moon does when looking through a 
cloud. — Dowden. He noticed the change, and . . . measured the ex- 
tent better than I had done. — Martineau. A crowd of birds . . . came 
to hear the saint preach, as fish did to hear St. Anthony. — Lechy. By 
money, he has become a lord of men, as Tamburlaine did by force. — 
Doivden. When the inflections were dying out ... as they did very 
early. — Marsh. If I asked for her portrait, as I shall do some day. — 
Kingsley. He would rather make mQput it on than ask me to let him do 
it. — George Eliot. Proceeding, as it does, from the sensitiveness of her 
love. — Dowdeii. So far from writing, as you seem to expect me to do, 
a letter of condolence. — Hamerton. Imagine them growing gradually 
larger, as they actually do. — Tyndall. Must stand or fall on its own 
merits, as others have done before it. — Lowell. Grandcourt got more 
pleasure out of this notion than he could have done in winning. — George 
Eliot, 

Note the tenses and modes of the substituted do ; note, 
too, that it may be an infinitive, Note the tenses and 
modes of the verb for which do is substituted. Note that 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Verb. 69 

do may stand for an infinitive or a participle, 'Note 
that do may stand for a transitive verb^ or be substituted 
for an intransitive. This last is a use denied it by the 
critics. 

9. Do Emphatic. — The employment of do in the present 
and imperfect to add energy to the expression is exceedingly 
common. This use of it goes far back in English, even into 
Anglo-Saxon^ but did not become general until the end of 
the fifteenth century. Lounsbury, Matzner, March, and 
others think that this emphatic do grew out of do used as a 
substitute. The transition, for instance, from, '' The rea- 
sons which led Tyrwhitt to come to the conclusions he did 
are not hard to find^^ to '^The reasons which led Tyrwhitt 
to come to the conclusions he did come to are not hard to 
find,^' is easy and natural. 

10. The JPassiveVoice. — Professor Hadley points out that 
in the Celtic languages the verb has the r in the passive ending 
of its simple tenses. The Latin r in the passive is the s of the 
reflexive pronoun se, after undergoing rhotacism. The Swed- 
ish and the Danish have their passive in s, and the Icelandic 
in sh or st, from their reflexive sik^ — the German sich. In 
its endings of the middle voice throughout, and in those of 
its passive, except the first aorist and the future, the Greek 
repeats the personal pronoun of the same person as that of 
the subject. In these languages it is seen that the passive 
endings are, or are borrowed from, a middle voice, in which 
the action expressed by the verb is made to return upon the 
agent. 

The striking thing about the English verb is, that, like 
the Anglo-Saxon and the German, it has, if we except the 
past participle, no passive form whatever. The passive of 
an English verb in any tense is made by prefixing to the past 



70 Tlie English Language, 

participle the forms of the verb ie in that tense. Our Anglo- 
Saxon ancestors used for this purpose the forms of weor'^an 
or those of wesan, or leon, our le. These two verbs were so 
used, seemingly with little or no distinction in meaning. 

This 'weoT^an, with the meanings become, befall, betide, ox 
be, survives in old and even in modern English, though not 
always in the j)assive voice. 

And now worth this mede y-maried. — Langlande. Woe tvorth the 
day. — Ezeh. xxx. 2. Woe worth the man. — Spenser. 

The virtual abandonment in English of the Anglo-Saxon 
tveor^an was accomplished in spite of the analogy of the Ger- 
man, whose passive voice always uses werden, the correlative 
of iveor'6an. It is due, Matzner and Hadley think, to ^^the 
influence of the French principle of formation. ^^ 

The English enjoys unequalled freedom in forming its 
passives. 

The anarchy was "put an end to. — J. R. Green. The wealthy 
refugees were positively denied admittance into the territory.— Jio^^ey. 
Many things which might have been done without. — George Eliot. The 
most sacred things may he made an ill use of. — Bicker stajf. The logical 
distinction was quite lost sight of. — Bagehot. The child should he taken 
all imaginable care of. — Farquliar. 

11. The Passive Eocpressing Continuing Action. — 

The past participle joined to the forms of be usually repre- 
sents an action as completed. To indicate continuing action 
in the passive voice it became customary in Middle English, 
1350-1550, to prefix to the verbal noun in mig — afterward 
ing — the preposition in or on, changed in spelling to a to 
indicate the careless pronunciation given it. Afterwards the 
a was suppressed. The house is in building. The house is a 
building, and The house is building, exhibit the three modes 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — The Verb, 71 

successively taken to indicate action as going on in the 
passive. 

The Anglo-Saxon present participle ended in a^ide, ende. 
The final letter dropped, and the initial was exchanged for i. 
The meaning of the participle and of the verbal noun^ analo- 
gous, if not identical, hastened the change of ind in the parti- 
ciple to ing. When this had taken place, the participle and 
the verbal noun, alike in form and function, were confounded 
the one with the other, and is iuilding was regarded as is 
with the present participle of bnild. 

But this combination, always clear when the subject names 
something that can only suffer an action, is ambiguous 
when that something can put forth the act as well. The 
chicken is eatmg may mean that the fowl is picking up grains 
of corn and swallowing them ; or that, cooked and on the 
plate, it is having the act of eating performed upon it. Nor 
would the ambiguity be removed if we followed Marsh's sug- 
gestion, and went back to the original form. The chicken is 
a eating. 

Hence the need of a neiv form for the continuous pas- 
sive with subjects denoting things that can both exert and 
undergo the act expressed by the verb. Such a form, con- 
sisting of being, preceded by the present or the past indicative 
of be, and followed by the past participle of a verb — is being 
eaten, teas being eaten — came into vogue during the past 
century. It came to prevent ambiguity ; but, like other 
forms, it has outgrown the original intention, and we now 
use it where the old form Avould be unambiguous. We may 
say. The house is being bnilt, though a house cannot build. 

The form is confined to the present and the past indic- 
ative. 

George P. Marsh, writing about 1860, pronounces the new 



72 The English Language, 

combination '' an awkward neologism^ which neither con- 
venience^ intelligibility^ nor syntactical congrnity demands/' 
But surely its awkwardness is not obtrusive ; in use a hun- 
dred years when Marsh wrote, it seems hardly just to call it 
a '"neologism;^" and, preventing ambiguity, '* convenience 
and intelligibility '' do demand it. E. G. White cannot frame 
sentences strong enough to carry the weight of his hostility 
to it and to the man that coined it ; the one is '^'an incon- 
gruous and ridiculous form of speech/^ and the other '^ a pre- 
cise and feeble-minded soul/^ 

But the form has thriven u]3on such criticism. Mr. White 
is contradicted by the facts, when he affirms that the form 
''lacks the support of authoritative usage from the jDcriod 
of the earliest classical English to the present day J' Of 
course, Macaulay, wdio professed to strain out the gnat itSy 
did not swallow the camel misnamed '' neologism : " but 
such sentences as these besprinkle the pages of the best liter- 
ature of ''the present day^^ : — 

While my hand was being drest. — Coleridge. Realities which are he- 
ing acted before us. — Lamb. The bride that ims being married to him. 
— De Quincey, While these letters ivere being written. — Sir II. Maine. 
A time when men were being lifted into nobleness. — J. R. Green. Which 
is being done by means of it. — Morley. These investigations are con- 
stantly being made. — Seeley. The corpuscles enter the eggs while they 
are being formed. — Huxley. At this very moment souls are being led 
into the Catholic Church. — Newman. A sign of what is being felt. 
— Martineau. 

In our collected instances the new form stands to the old 
in the ratio of three to one. 

XXIX. Concluding Remarks upon Inflections. — We have 
now 'said what seemed needful upon the loss of inflections 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon, — The Verb, ?3 

undergone by the Anglo-Saxon in becoming English. This 
loss, begun before the Conquest, took place largely during 
the centuries immediately following it. It was then that the 
guardianship of the language was in the hands of ignorant 
men ; when the dialect of Wessex, in which the Anglo-Saxon 
that has reached us was written, had lost its authority, and 
every man was a law unto himself. It is at such times that 
grammatical disintegration is most rapid. Grammati- 
cal changes do occur at other times, but the point to accent 
is, that they take place more slowly then. It is literature 
that gives to language much of its fixedness. Every gram- 
matical change on the printed page challenges the attention 
of many, who, if conservative in anything, are so in speech. 
Indeed, the change cannot be made except by their suffrage, ' 
for usage alone determines what is law in language. 

Loss of grammatical terminations is not nniistial. All 
highly inflected languages suffer it. The Anglo-Saxon was 
unique only in the rapidity and in the extent of it. In the 
earlier, the synthetic, era, forms multiply until what seem 
afterward to be useless distinctions are registered in them, 
burdening the memory, and encumbering the machinery of 
expression. Then abandonment begins, and the language 
enters upon its analytic stage. It adds efficiency, as did the 
steam-engine, by simplification. Witness, in proof, the gain 
made by dropping the dative and instrumental cases, the 
dual number, and the declensions of the adjective. 

But, as the language in its synthetic stage took on forms 
subsequently thought needless, so in its analytic period it may 
throw away what afterward we might like to recover. There 
seems to be no good reason why a language may not resume 
cast-off forms, though it seldom or never does. But it may 
take on wholly new ones, and this, too, when the analytic 



74 The Englisli Language. 

tendency is rifest, and the changes most sweeping. AVe have 
seen that within a century and a quarter a continuous pas- 
sive in the present and the imperfect has been added to 
our grammatical equipment. AVe have seen^ too, that our 
Anglo-Saxon method of comparison has been reinforced by a 
■second, the adverbial, and that now we uniformly place to 
before the infinitive. This addition and this extension, we 
wish to say parenthetically, have been made in face of the 
■claim that a mixture of grammars is impossible ; for we bor- 
rowed the one from the French, and did the other largely 
under the compulsion of French analogy. 

Disuse of forms does not prove indifference to the 
distinctions which they indicate. These distinctions can be 
made in other ways. Indeed, the dropping of inflections has 
been continued in English while intellectual discrimination 
has been keenest, and Avhile expression has kept pace in ex- 
actness with the growing definiteness of thought. It would 
be easy to show how, by our auxiliary verbs, our adjectives, 
and adverbs, modal and other, and our prepositional phrases, 
we can exjDress more delicate relations and finer shades of 
distinction than by any multiplication of cases or other 
grammatical forms. 

AVe might say, in closing, that along with the extinction 
of forms, and in consequence of it, words in English have 
lost something of their old freedom of j^osition in the sen- 
tence. For Avhen, in their terminations, words have ticketed 
upon them their relations to other words, they can stand al- 
most anywhere in the sentence without disguising these rela- 
tions and obscuring the thought. 

But it is to be noted that where this freedom of position is 
very great, little is likely to be made of it in the matter of 
style. The very commonness of the possession incapacitates 



Grammatical Changes of Anglo-Saxon. — Tlie Verb, 75 

it for service ; just as in Latin and Greeks rhyme was not 
nsed^ because^ through a surfeit of like terminations^ rhyming 
would have been easy. But any abridgment of freedom of 
position intts a price upon Avhat remains^, and makes posi- 
tion a valuable factor in expression. In a language like 
ours^ then^ where the place of words is by no means rigidly 
fixed^ nor 3- et wholly without restriction^ a word or a phrase^ 
depending for its force upon those with which it is imme- 
diately yoked, can have its force brought out to the full ; 
and the point of a sentence, resting in great measure upon 
the arrangement of its parts, can be perfectly secured. In 
such a language, the art of proper placing is hardly secondary 
to that of apt selection ; and the skill and success of our 
literary commanders largely lie in the happy marshalling 
of their verbal hosts. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE DIALECTS IX EXGLISH. 

XXX. The Differences between the Dialects. — As we saw^ 
the Teutonic invaders of the island were not one people^ but 
three^ and they settled in different portions of Britain. Their 
linguistic differences, aggravated by the settlement of the 
Danes in the north, by the more active communication kept 
up between this portion of Britain and the continent, and by 
the flocking of the Xormans to the north in greater numbers 
than elsewhere — these original differences, thus intensified, 
could not but show themselves in differences of speech per- 
sisting even after these peoples blended with the Xorman- 
French, and the English language began. At all events, the 
grammatical changes of which we have been speaking, 
changes in the noun and the verb particularly, changes 
which it took centuries to make, did not take place through- 
out England at the same uniform rate. The consequence 
was, that during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the 
language of England was not univocal ; dialects prevailed, 
dialects differing essentially from each other. 

The geograpliical boundaries between these ran east 
and west ; the men of these parts, ^^ as it were under the same 
portion of heaven, agreeing more in the sound of their speech 
than men of the north with men of the south. '^ That spoken 
north of the Humber, and as far as to the Firth of Forth, 
was called the Northern Dialect ; that spoken between the 



The Dialects in English. 77 

Humber and the Thames was called the Midland Dialect ; 
and that between the Thames and the southern coasts the 
Southern Dialect. The two differing most were those widest 
apart geographically. 

In the matter of grammar^ the Northern was radical, 
and abandoned its inflections without reluctance, attaining^ 
by the beginning of the fourteenth century^ the simplicity of 
modern English. The Southern was conservative, and held 
to the old inflections with great tenacity. And^ in the mat- 
ter of sounds, the Northern generally retained the hard, gut- 
tural sounds of the Anglo-Saxon ; the Southern softened 
these into palatals. 

1. The Noun. — The Northern dialect led the way in drop- 
ping the plural en (Anglo-Saxon an) ending, and in giving 
to nouns the plural ending es or s (Anglo-Saxon masculine 
as of the vowel declension). The s of the genitive they 
often dropped. The Southern clung tenaciously to the plu- 
ral e7i, and even extended it to nouns which in Anglo- 
Saxon were of the vowel declension. 

2. The I*ronoun. — In the Northern, the double genitive 
oures, youres, hires, and heres occur side by side with 
oure, youre, hire, and here. These double genitives we 
keep in ours, yours, hers, and theirs. The Southern added 
n instead of s, and said ouren, youren, hiren, heren {their'ri), 
which, somewhat changed, survive in provincial English now. 

3. The Verb. — The Northern (1) led in exchanging for s 
the th of the third person singular indicative present eth ; 
(2) used es in place of est in the second person ; (3) at times 
made the first person end in s ; and (4) made the present 
plural in 5. It often dropped (1) the ending of the third 
singular ; (2) the plural ending throughout ; (3) the eel of 
the preterite ; and (4) hardly ever used the prefix y or i in its 



78 The Englisli Language. 

participles. The Southern dialect held fast to the tli of the 
third singular and to the tli of the plural throughout, and 
imitated the Northern in none of the changes initiated by it. 

4. Orthography, — Anglo-Saxon cyrice, cernan, cist, re- 
taining the h sound of c, became hirk, kern, and hist, in the 
ISlorthern, but chnrcli, clinrn, and chest in the Southern. 
Anglo-Saxon /(9.^^ remained /oo; in the Northern^ became vox 
in the Southern. Anglo-Saxon irycg was iryg in the North 
and bridge in the South. Stan, mar, are stane and mare in 
the North, and stone and more in the South. 

We may add that some Scandinavian words in the North 
are absent from the dialect of the South. 

The Midland dialect mediated between these two. Hav- 
ing over both the Northern and the Southern the advantages 
of London, the Court, the two Universities, and great authors 
like Chaucer, it took what it chose from each ; or, as in 
the case of the present plural in en, it rejected the authority 
of both, crowded them to the wall, and in the end became 
the national language. Still, for a long while it felt the 
influence of both. Shakespeare has more than two hundred 
plurals of verbs in s, Lounsbury says ; one hundred and sixty- 
eight, according to March. Even after the modernization of 
Shakespeare's plays by his editors, four verbs with ^^Inrals in 
s — lies, aches, fares, ^ndi falls — are found in The Tempest, 
it is said. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE a:n^glo-saxok a:n^d the lati:n' ik our vocabulary. 

The Norman words^ properly Latin^ came into English 
(1) to supply the demands of the blended peoples for terms 
to denote things and express thoughts which the Saxons 
never had^ and so had no words to denote. They came (2) 
to fill the gap caused by the loss of words which the Anglo- 
Saxons before the Conquest did have. They came (3) as 
contestants for the places already filled by the Anglo-Saxon. 
In this contest the Latin (a) sometimes dislodged the Anglo- 
Saxon. Labor and toil do duty now instead of stvincan, 
and voice has supplanted stefen. Often in the struggle the 
Latin (b) divided the ground with the Anglo-Saxon. Color 
exists side by side with hiw, or hue, and/oy with bliss. But 
oftener^ perhaps^ the Anglo-Saxon {c) held their positions^, 
and the Latin words never secured the coveted footing in 
the language. 

JLatin words have come in^ in great numbers, since^ to 
satisfy the demands of our ever-increasing knowledge and 
higher development. For little attempt has been made to 
meet these insatiable requirements by any effort to compound 
into new vocables the old Anglo-Saxon material preserved. 

These, too, have entered into contest with the Anglo- 
Saxon for the places occupied by them. 

XXXI. What Words belong to Each Element.— We may 



80 The EngUsh Language. 

say that all the pronouns : the numerals : the irregular verbs 
(except strive), including the auxiliaries : the prepositions 
and the conjunctions (excepting save, except, concerning, 
and tecause and a few others) are Anglo-Saxon. A slight 
percentage of the other words are Indo-European ; some are 
Celtic, some Scandinavian, some Greek, and some have been 
adopted from the peoples with whom the English have had 
intercourse. 

The remainder are Anglo-Saxon and Latin. It is of this 
7'eniainder^ the bulk of the vocabulary, more than ninety 
per cent, of it, that we wish now to speak. And we shall 
speak more plainly if we speak specifically, if we throw 
these words into classes and look at them there, ^q can- 
not give all the classes, cannot give all the words in each 
class. To do this would require hundreds of pages. But 
perhaps the classes, and the words in each class, may be made 
representative : if so, selecting and studying the few, we may 
safely draw conclusions respecting all. 

AVe will here say that under each heading the first list 
of words is Anglo-Saxon ; the second^ Latin, 

1. The Xanies of Trees, Plants, Flowers, and their 
Tarts. 

Ash. berry, birch, blade,, blossom, bough, daisy, elro. harebell, hem- 
lock, ivy. leaf, limb, maple, moss, oak, oxslip, root, sap. sprig, stalk, 
stem, thistle, twig, walnut, and willow. 

Bulb, carnation, columbine, dandelion, fennel, foliage, fruit, gourd, 
herb, larch, lichen, lotus, pansy, petal, pine, pistil, pollen, poplar, 
poppy, stamen, trunk, vine, and violet. 

'2. Names of Cereals, Vegetables, and Fruits. 

Apple, barley, bean, corn, cranberry, oats, rye, and wheat. 
Grain, onion, parsnip, pea, pear, pulse, radish, and squash. 



The Anglo-Saxon and the Latin in our Vocabulary, 81 

3. Names of Animals^ Domestic and Other. 

Ant, bear, bee, bird, boar, bull, calf, cat, chicken, colt, cow, crow, 
dove, duck, flea, fly, fowl, frog, gnat, goat, hare, heifer, hen, horse, 
lamb, lark, midge, mouse, owl, sheep, snake, spider, toad, wasp, and 
worm. 

Beast, biped, brute, caterpillar, eagle, falcon, insect, lizard, male, 
oriole, oyster, pigeon, porcupine, quadruped, reptile, salmon, serpent, 
vermin, viper, and vulture. 

4. Names of Faints of the JBody^ Human and Other. 

Ankle, beard, blood, bone, breast, brain, brow, cheek, chin, claw, ear, 
elbow, eye, fat, finger, hair, hand, hip, hoof, horn, lip, liver, mouth, 
nail, neck, nose, rib, shoulder, sinew, skin, thigh, throat, thumb, 
tongue, and wrist. 

Abdomen, antennae, entrails, face, gullet, intestines, loin, muscle, 
nerve, palate, serum, spine, tendon, vein, and vertebra. 

5. Names of Buildings for Divelling and Other Pur- 
poseSf and their JPaj^ts. 

Barn, beam, floor, glass, house, hovel, latch, lath, oven, rafter, roof, 
room, shed, shelf, shop, stair, and threshold. 

Apartment, casement, castle, cellar, ceiling, chapel, college, cupola, 
domicile, edifice, flue, fort, foundation, hotel, joist, kitchen, mortar, 
pane, pantry, partition, plaster, porch, post, sash, spire, stable, tower, 
and wall. 

6. Names of Household Articles. 

Bed, bolster, bowl, broom, knife, looking-glass, needle, shears, sheet, 
sieve, spoon, stool, thimble, and tongs. 

Bureau, carpet, coverlet, cup, curtain, cushion, fork, kettle, lamp, 
mat, mirror, napkin, pan, pail, pin, pillow, plate, scissors, table, and 
utensil. 

7. Names of Farm Ijfipleinents. 

Auger, axe, hammer, harrow, ladder, rake, saw, scythe, shovel, spade, 
trough, wedge, and yoke. 

Chisel, flail, lever, mallet, and sickle. 



82 Tlie English Language, 

8. Nouns Denoting Time. 

Day, evening, fortnight, morning, month, morrow, night, week, year, 
and yesterday. 

Age, century, era, eternity, instant, millennium, minute, moment, 
noon, and second. 

9. Woiiiis Denoting Occupation. 

Blacksmith, fisherman, lawyer, preacher, saddler, sailor, shepherd, 
shoemaker, steward, and teacher. 

Accountant, author, barber, doctor, editor, farmer, grocer, hostler, 
instructor, laundress, manufacturer, merchant, minister, publisher, and 
soldier. 

10. Nouns Denoting Civil Organization and Sank 
in Life. 

Alderman, borough, churl, earl, henchman, lady, lord, king, queen, 
sheriff, shire, and thane. 

Bail, bill, chancellor, constable, consul, coroner, council, convention, 
countess, court, duke, judge, jury, legislator, magistrate, mayor, par- 
liament, plaintiff, prince, prison, realm, republic, secretary, senate, ser- 
vant, sovereign, and viscount. 

11. Verbs Denoting Physical Acts. 

Bake, blush, borrow, carve, climb, cram, dip, drain, fasten, fetch, 
flow, gather, gleam, gnaw, grin, hitch, knead, limp, mark, pound, 
prick, pull, reach, reap, row, scatter, shove, sift, singe, stoop, stretch, 
thump, tie, trim, twist, wade, whittle, wipe, wriggle. 

Adhere, annex, arrest, ascend, bisect, chain, chase, chastise, collect, 
condense, confine, defend, deliver, destroy, disinfect, dispel, divide, 
elude, emerge, enter, escape, expend, expel, extort, feast, flog, fortify, 
impede, infuse, insert, invade, measure, mend, paint, pave, plunge, pre- 
cede, protract, soar, stop, stain, surprise, travel, vibrate, and visit. 

12. Verbs Eocpressing Acts of the Mind. 

Believe, care, deem, dread, heed, hope, like, love, reckon, soothe, 
stare, thank, wish, and worship. 

Admire, approve, aspire, conjecture, consider, deliberate, deplore, 



The Anglo-Saxon and the Latin m our Vocabulary, 83 

desire, despise, disdain, distinguish, enjoy, envy, esteem, excuse, favor, 
imagine, infer, observe, ponder, recognize, recollect, reflect, remember, 
repent, resent, revere, revert, and suffer. 

Vii. Nouns Denoting Acts^ Feelings^ I^ossessions^ 
JProducts^ and JPowers of the Mind, 

Belief, dread, choice, dream, fear, guilt, hate, love, mood, pride, 
shame, sight, sorrow, thought, will, wisdom, wit, and worry. 

Admiration, anguish, animosity, aspiration, assurance, benevolence, 
conscience, consideration, contumely, courage, culture, desire, de- 
spair, dignity, disappointment, disgust, disposition, envy,, esteem, 
faith, favor, felicity, fidelity, gratitude, grief, homage, humor, indigna- 
tion, innocence, instinct, intellect, joy, malevolence, merit, motive, 
notion, opinion, perception, purpose, reason, remorse, sense, terror, 
vanity, vengeance, virtue, and volition. 

14. Adjectives, 

Bare, black, brittle, broad, brown, busy, chilly, clean, cool, damp, 
dark, deep, dim, dingy, dreary, dry, early, empty, fair, fresh, full, glad, 
good, great, green, hard, high, hollow, lame, loud, mad, mean, mellow, 
near, new, proiid, quick, raw, red, right, ripe, rough, shabby, sick, 
silly, slow, sorry, sour, stark, stiff, stingy, strong, thin, tough, true, 
warm, wary, wet, white, wide, wise, wrong, yellow, and young. 

Able, accurate, adequate, acute, appropriate, arduous, audible, bland, 
capacious, cautious, complete, conspicuous, curt, decent, delicate, de- 
licious, dense, discreet, docile, elegant, enormous, equal, extraordinary, 
facile, famous, false, fertile, fierce, floral, frivolous, frugal, formidable, 
general, generous, genial, grand, haughty, honest, lax, ludicrous, mag- 
nanimous, magnificent, mature, modest, moral, nude, null, obscure, 
obvious, pallid, partial, perfect, pious, possible, proper, prudent, rel- 
evant, religious, ridiculous, sacred, serene, sincere, tedious, total, 
various, and virile. 

By prefixing the Latin in, or the Anglo-Saxon tm, to many 
of the adjectives in these lists^ a set of negative adjectives 
may be formed ; and by adding the Anglo-Saxon ly (like) 
to most of the affirmative and the negative adjectives^ these 
may be converted into adverbs. 



84 The Englisli Language. 

As we promised, we have omitted^ from classification, 
irregular verbs^ pronouns^ numeral adjectives^ prepositions, 
and conjunctions. These are practically all Anglo-Saxon. 
We have confined ourselves to the remaining Anglo-Saxon 
and to the Latin. And of these we have only iegun the 
grouping, both in the number of classes made, and in the 
filling up of these few. But have we not done enough to 
warrant a few generalizations ? ^ 

The names of such things (1) in the animal and vegetable 
worlds as were native to the island, and generally known be- 
fore the Conquest ; the names (2) of the outward parts of 
the animal body, and of those internal organs that easily 
reveal their presence ; (3) of common buildings and their 
necessary parts : (4) of the household equipment that families 
living in such houses must have ; (5) of such farm imple- 
ments as a people rude in arts and agriculture could make 
and use ; (6) of occupations mainly manual ; (7) of the 
essential divisions of time ; (8) the verbs that express many 
of the customary acts in the material world and operations 
in the mental ; and (9) adjectives that denote obvious sen- 
sible qualities, and the obtrusive attributes of the intellect, 
of the emotional nature, and of character ; — these are mainly 
Anglo-Saxon. 

But to name (1) things in the animal and vegetable king- 
doms seen b}^ travel ; (2) to denote buildings higher and 
more complex than the common dwelling, and to mark those 
parts of them and those belongings to them unfamiliar to the 
Anglo-Saxons, but needful, we should think, even for com- 
fort ; (3) to indicate those parts of the body and their func- 
tions which science has disclosed ; to denote (4) the longer 
or the more minute divisions of time, and the occupations 
that indicate higher culture ; and (5) generally, to mark the 



The Anglo- Saxon and the Latin in onr Vocabulary . 85 

less ordinary physical acts, requiring, many of them, plan and 
combination, and to denote the less obvious objects and quali- 
ties of objects in the outward world ; — to do these things we 
draw largely upon the Latin element of the language. And 
when we turn to the words in English expressive (6) of civil 
and social organization, or used (7) to denote intellectual acts, 
states, qualities, powers, possessions, products, or required 
(8) to express the higher feelings and the traits of character, 
or needed (9) to denote classes and general notions, — we 
find the contrast between the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin 
in English most striking. It is in words expressive of these 
things that the Anglo-Saxon element is painfully lacking. 

These distinctions, made between the two grand elements 
of our vocabulary, we should find ratified did we push our ex- 
amination into other fields, especially into the more scientific 
— though here the Latin is generously aided by the Greek. 
Some of the deficiencies of the Anglo-Saxon may be ac- 
counted for by claiming that Anglo-Saxon words have per- 
ished, and others by the fact that Scandinavian words do 
duty occasionally for them ; but we think that in the com- 
parison just made, the present state of the Anglo-Saxon 
and of the Latin in the English vocabulary is not unfaith- 
fully pictured. 

XXXII. The Anglo-Saxon and the Latin in Use. — We have 
been speaking of these two elements as found in the diction- 
ary. Fortunately, we are able to say something respecting 
them in tise. It fell to us not long since to make an ex- 
tended examination of the words eminent writers and speak- 
ers choose. The examination was made in looking into the 
charge brought against Eufus Choate that he employed a 
diction unduly Latinized. 

The different words found in his works were gathered to- 



86 The English Language, 

gether and arranged alphabetically. Twenty other distin- 
guished men — ten British and ten American — were chosen. 
From each of these a speech, an argument at the bar, an ora- 
tion, or some chapters of a book were taken, and the words 
of each w^ere also alphabetically placed. Xo word in any one 
of the twenty-one lists thus formed Avas counted more than 
once, unless the several forms of it were from distinct roots ; 
only one degree of an adjective or an adverb ; only one of 
the six or seven possible forms of any verb ; only one case of 
any noun or pronoun. Let this be borne in mind. Had 
each w^ord been counted at its every a]3pearance, the show- 
ing w^e are about to make would be very diiferent ; for let us 
say, once for all, that the words constantly reappearing 
are Anglo-Saxon. 

The classes formed were five — (1) the Teutonic (almost en- 
tirely Anglo-Saxon); (2) the Latin ; (3) the Greek ; (4) the 
Indo-European ; and (5) the Scattering. After the classifi- 
cation, a count w^as made, and the percentages were reached. 
The curious may care to know that the comparison com- 
pletely relieved Mr. Choate of the charge, thirteen of the 
twenty using a proportion of Latin words larger than his. 

The worth of the comparison to us, however, lies in the light 
which it throws upon the use great writers and speakers make 
of the Anglo- Saxon and the Latin. Their relative value for 
literary purposes is seen in the levy which these learned men, 
in their characteristic efi'orts, make upon these elements. 

The general belief (1) that for ordinary communication we 
make the heaviest drafts upon the Anglo-Saxon ; (2) that 
the w^ords coming most frequently to the tongue and often- 
est repeated on the page are Anglo-Saxon ; and (3) that, 
while on social or business topics we can construct whole 
paragraphs without a word of Latin, it is all but impossible 



The Anglo-Saxon and the Latin in our Vocabulary. 87 

to frame a sentence without the Anglo-Saxon ; — this belief 
the figures of the comparison do not disturb. And this is 
much to confess ; for it is an acknowledgment that our 
dependence upon the Anglo-Saxon is absolute^ so far as it 
extends. J^or do these figures (4) give the number of the 
Anglo-Saxon and of the Latin w^ords in our vocabulary, or 
(5) settle their ratio to each other, or (6) decide the ques- 
tion whether, had our ancestors of the thirteenth and four- 
teenth centuries imitated the ancient Greeks or the modern 
Germans, and formed new words by compounding native 
material, we might not now be using a vocabulary all of 
a piece, and yet ample for our utmost needs. But when 
twenty-one representative authors in their representative 
efforts use a per cent, of Latin words varying from 5 6 J- to 
72|^ (of Latin and Greek together, from 63^^^- to 75^^^) over 
'against a per cent, of Teutonic ranging only from 23y^q- to 
33f^ — when, we repeat, this is the exhibit made by the com- 
parison, we think we are warranted in claiming that, at least, 
we cannot do without the Latin words in our English ; that, 
when we rise above the commonplace in matter and in man- 
ner, we find such words indispensable. We say indispensa- 
hle ; for, while the ferry-boat that takes us daily to our place 
of business is indispensable, is not the transatlantic steamer 
that bears us to Europe, even though we go but once ? 

But, just as it is difficult to tell how much of the English- 
man or of his achievements is due to his Germanic and how 
much to his Latin ancestry, so it is impossible to estimate 
precisely what his style or his literature owes to words from 
each of these sources. It would seem, however, that these 
two classes of words, mingling freely in the current of every 
English sentence, have dwelt so long and pleasantly together 
that we cannot with propriety continue to call either class 



88 TJie English Language. 

foreign^ alieii. Often we cannot^ without close scrutiny, tell 
which words are Latin and which are Anglo-Saxon. By 
some ear-marks, j)^i'l^^ps^ t)ut certainly not by their length, 
by their strangeness to him, or by his inability to handle 
them deftly, would any one of but average culture suspect 
that the following nouns, adjectives, and verbs belong to the 
Latin : — 

Age, art, cap, case, cent, cost, crust, fact, fault, form, ink, line, mile, 
noise, page, pain, pair, part, peace, pen, piece, pound, price, rule, soil, 
sound, ton, tone, and vail ; apt, chief, clear, cross, crude, easy, firm, 
frail, grand, grave, just, large, lazy, mere, nice, pale, plain, poor, pure, 
rare, real, rich, round, safe, scarce, square, sure, vain, and vast ; add, 
aid, aim, bet, boil, class, close, cook, cure, doubt, fail, fix, fry, mix, 
move, pass, pay, save, serve, strain, stray, train, try, turn, and use. 

These, and hundreds of other short Latin words, as well 
understood as the simplest Anglo-Saxon, are mostly without 
Saxon equivalents. But even those with Saxon duplicates 
are almost equally necessary ; they give to our speech a rich 
synonymy that aids us in making and in expressing the finer 
distinctions in thought. 

Besides, the Latin are often (1) the most forcible words in 
English. What Anglo-Saxon verb of teaching matches in 
vigor inculcate — to drive in with the heel ? What other 
adjective denoting health has the strength of rohust — oaken ? 
Such words, unfortunately, are pregnant with meaning only 
to the etymologist. In this they differ from what the vigor- 
ous, self -explaining Anglo-Saxon words would have been had 
that element been fostered. They give (2) conciseness to ex- 
pression ; like canals across isthmuses they shorten the route 
— witness mutual, reanimate, circumlocution. Oftener than 
the Anglo-Saxon they are (3) metaphorical, and flash upon 
the thought a poetic light : as, dilapidated, applied to for- 



The Anglo-Saxon and the Latin in our Vocabulary, 89 

tune or dress ; ruined, to character ; luminous, to expression. 
They impart (4) grace and smoothness to style — are the musi- 
cal, melodious, and mellifluous words of the language. They 
give (5) pomp and stateliness to discourse^ and make possible 
the grand manner of Sir Thomas Browne^ of Milton^ and of 
De Quincey. A vocabulary like ours^ duly compounded of 
the Teutonic and the Eomance^ has a manifoldness and an 
abounding verbal wealth that adapt it to every kind of writ- 
ing, and are wonderfully stimulative of it. And so, while 
the literatures in other languages excels each in some single 
department, ours is confessedly eminent in all. 

While it is difficult to exaggerate the Avork and the worth 
of the Anglo-Saxon in English, we must say that we depre- 
cate what has been called the ^^ violent reaction ^^ that has set 
in, in favor of it — a reaction which, carried to the extreme, 
would practically disinherit us of vast verbal possessions. 
But, without any wish to champion the Latin element, we 
may safely say that this reaction cannot be carried to the 
extreme. As soon expect to drive us back to the ancestral 
tunic and to wooden trenchers, or attempt to squeeze the 
full-grown fowl into its native egg-shell again. 

Hence we find the wise Alexander Bain breaking out, on 
the opening page of his work On Teaching English, into^ 
'" To write continuously in anything like pure Saxon is 
plainly impossible. Moreover^ none of our standard Eng- 
lish authors, whether in prose or in poetry^ have thought it 
a merit to be studiously Saxon in their vocabulary. ^^ 

The words chosen should be appropriate to the topic, and 
level to the comprehension of those addressed. Thus much 
we may properly insist upon ; but it would be unwise to 
encourage our pupils to seek for such words in the Anglo- 
Saxon element alone. 



CHAPTER X. 

SYXOXYMS. 

As preliminary to the treatment of synonyms^ we wish to 
say that 

XXXIII. Some Words Widen their Meaning. — This widen- 
ing we will represent thus, <^ . The telescope has revealed 
many facts concerning the moon, unknoAvn to those who 
named that body. But we have not dropped the name for 
another ; moon remains, though it signifies now more than 
it did. 

XXXIV. Some Words Narrow their Meaning. — This nar- 
rowing we rejDresentthus, t> . Worm once had, in addition 
to its present meaning, all that snake, asp, serpent, and kin- 
dred words now express. Starve, in Chaucer, meant to die ; 
now, to die of hunger, or, simply, to famish. Creatures 
meant all created things ; now, only living things. 

To this tendency synonyms conform ; and this, whether 
they come, those of a group, from the different elements of 
our language or from the same element. The large ground 
of meaning once covered by both — symbolized by the space 
c in the first parallelogram below — is gradually divided be- 
tween the two, until 1-2 and 3-4 have narrowed, each, we 
will say, to one-half of 1-4, and c has disappeared as com- 
mon ground. 

XXXY. The Relations of Synonyms to Each Other. — Syno- 
nyius are words, in groups of twos or threes or more, which 



Synonyms, 91 

have a meaning in common^ but have also each a meaning 
wholly its own. They abound in English. They come^ 
oftentimes, those of a group, from the same element of our 
speech ; frequently, from different elements. Their sources 
in English are largely the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin. When 
these were blending, the growing component had its choice 
between two words for the same thing. Often it chose one^ 
but frequently it took both. Many of its early words the 
English has since duplicated or triplicated by borrowing 
directly from the Latin. 

Restricting each word of a group to a part of the mean- 
ing once held in common by all is to make each word more 
specific ; is, in reality, to add to the resources of the vocabu- 
lary. From the beginning of English, the movement has 
been one of desynonymization. 

To exhibit the relation of synonyms to each other let us 
draw the parallelogram 1-4, 

2 4 



a 


c i 



and divide it into the two parallelograms 1-2 and 3-4, with 
3-2 forming part of each. Now let us suppose the area 1-2 to 
represent the ground of meaning covered by one synonym, 
and 3-4 that covered by the other. 3-2, or the space marked 
6', will then picture that shared by the two synonyms ; a that 
which belongs exclusively to the first synonym ; and h that 
which belongs exclusively to the second. When then, below, 
we use the letters a, c, Z>, it will be understood for what parts 
of the synonyms they stand. 

Bear in mind that a and I do not give the full meaning of 



92 The English Language. 

the synonyms. Add c to a for the meaning of the first 
synonj^m, and c to b for that of the second. 

If there are more than two in the group, conceive the 
parallelogram c to be extended upwards and downwards. 
Each extension plus c Avill then symbolize another synonym, 
and the complete figure will represent a group of four with 
the common meaning c. 

Sometimes the relation of the synonyms to each other is 
such that it would be better illustrated by the parallel- 
ogram divided thus : — 

2 4 



c I 



1 3 

Here 1-2 and 1-4 represent the two synonyms ; and c, their 
ground of common meaning, is all of the meaning covered 
by one of the synonyms — which synonym, then, has no mean- 
ing exclusively its own. 

To the Teacliev, — You must determine how much time can be 
spared for work upon the synonyms below, and what shall be the 
length of each lesson. 

A. -S.= Anglo-Saxon ; L.:=Latin ; Gk.=Greek ; C.=: Celtic ; 8.= 
Scandinavian ; A. ^Arabian ; I.E. = Indo-European ; H.=Hebrew ; 
P. — Persian ; and G.=German ; F. —French, but not Latin. 

Direction, — Study (1) the meanings which the synonyms below 
have in common ; (2) that which belongs exclusively to each ; (3) 
insert the right w^ord in the illustrative sentences ; and (4) frame sen- 
tences of your own, using each synonym correctly. 

Brhifj and Fetch^ both A.-S. ; c, all that is expressed by 
bring — to bear the object from its place to the one giving 
the order ; b, to go and get. 

As she was going to it, he called to her and said, me, I 

pray thee, a morsel of bread. — Bible, 



^"Synonyms, 93 

Jealousy (Gk.) and Envy (L.) ; c, a feeling excited in 
one ; a, by fear lest another may deprive one of his own ; b, 
by uneasiness at another's good fortune. 

Base withers at another's joy. — Thompson. The sick look with 

upon the well. lago aroused Othello's of Cassio. 

Hope (A.-S.) and Ex^^ect (L.) ; c, to look forward to 
something ; a^ with desire for it ; b, with a conviction that it 
will occur whether desired or not. 

All to die. deferred maketh the heart sick. — Bible. Whiles- 
there is life there's . — Gay. 

News and Tidings^ both A.-S. ; c, fresh information ; a, 
from any quarter^ and unlocked for ; h, from a particular 
quarter^ and looked for. 

The of Lincoln's death shocked us. The loss of the Oregon was 

startling . We waited for from Sliiloh. 

Healthy and Healthful^ both A.-S. ; c^ applicable to 
objects ; a, having health ; h, producing health. 

The climate is . food tends to make one . The trees: 

of the orchard are . 

Discover and Invent^ both L. ; c, to furidsh something; 
new ; a, by revealing what existed before ; b, by creating 
something not existing before. 

The Chinese gunpowder. Newton the law of gravitation. 

Harvey tiie circulation of blood. 

Many (A.-S.) and Much (S.) ; c, copious, abounding in ; 
a, number ; b, quantity. 

wheat is exported yearly . men of minds. 

An Untruth and a Lie, both A.-S. ; c, all that is covered 
by untruth — a statement lacking truth ; b, made with intent 
to deceive. 

Ananias was smitten dead for the he told. People unwittingly 

utter . 



94 The English Language. 

Character (Gk.) and Hejnifation (L.) ; c, the sum of 
qualities ; a, which one really has ; b, which one is credited 
with having. 

Burr's unenviable grew out of his worthless . Xo man was 

ever w^ritten out of but by hiinself. — Monk. 

Brutal and Brutish^ both L. ; c, denoting qualities at- 
tributed to the brute ; a, savage, cruel ; 5, gross, filthy. 

A drunkard wallowing in the gutter is ; a drunkard beating 

his wife is . 

Can hut and Cannot hut, both A.-S. ; (^, possibility or 
necessity depending upon ; a, physical, natural law ; Ij, 
moral law or restraint. 

We speak of things seen and heard. We think that God is 

good. Water run down hill. 

Grateful (L.) and Thankful (A.-S.) ; c\ all that is de- 
noted by grateful — warm feeling towards a benefactor ; h, 
the expression of this feeling. 

A polite man is never without being also. 

Ahstinence and Temperance, both L. ; c, the whole of 
temperance — restriction to a moderate use ; t), this restriction 
extended till it becomes total. 

Practice in youth, or you will be driven to in old age. 

JDissenihlers (Jj.) 2iwdi Hypocrites (Gk.) : r, deceivers; 
a, who conceal what they are ; J), who feign to be what they 
are not. 

Andre within the American lines, in a citizen's clothes, was a ; 

Arnold, whom he visited, had long been a . 

Murder (A.-S.) and Assassinate (A.) ; c, the whole oi 
murder — to kill with malicious forethought ; b, suddenly, 
and by stealth. 

William the Silent and Henrv IV. were . Dr.Cronin was . 



Synonyms. 95 

Custofn and Hahit^ both L. ; c, the whole of custom— ^ 
the frequent indulgence in an act ; b, till it becomes a second 
nature. 

Man is a bundle of . A — — more honored in the breach than in 

the observance. 

Emigrant and Inifnigrant^ both L. ; c, applied to one 
moving from one country to another ; a, on leaving the one ; 
b, on reaching the bther. 

form a large portion of our population. leave European 

ports daily. 

Hemembrance^ Mefniniscence^ and Recollection^ all 

L. ; Cy the bringing again of something into the mind^ or 
consciousness ; a and h, without effort to recall it ; d, by 
conscious effort of the will. 

My of that event tallies with yours. In reverie and dreaming 

the act is one of , or . 

Genuine and Authentic^ both L. ; c^ express the correct- 
ness of a work ; a, respecting its assigned authorship ; i, its 
contents. 

The writings of the impostors Chatterton and Ireland are not .. 

Macaulay's history is not perfectly . 

Epoch (Gk.) and Era (L.) ; c, applied in the computa- 
tion of time to ; a, a point from which time is reckoned ; l^. 
a period, or succession, of time. 

We live in the Christian , in the of liberty, in the of 

letters. The American Ivovohition constitutes an in human his- 
tory. 

Capacity and Ability^ both L. ; c, power ; a, receptive ; 
b, active. Abilities includes both ideas. 

Although the youth had only ordinary by application he be- 

came a. man of marked . 



96 The EngJisli Language, 

Chastity and Chasteness, both L. ; c, purity ; a, moral ; 
5, rhetorical. 

Swift is eminent for of style, but not for of thought. A 

pure style has . A pure woman has . 

Imagination (L.) and Fancy (Gk.) ; c, express the 
mind's creative power ; a, the more profound, earnest, and 
logical ; h, the more playful and capricious. 

Nick Bottom is a product of the ; Hamlet, of the , 

Enthtisiasni (Grk.) and Fanaticism (L.) ; c^ the whole 
of enthusiasm — ardent zeal, fervor ; h, intolerance of all 
opposition. 

characterizes the Mohammedan. the Christian. The Pil- 
grims were for religious liberty, not . 

Laconic (Grk.) and Concise (L.) ; c, all of concise — with- 
out needless words ; a, brief. 

Napier's telegram from India, i^eccavi. I have sinned (Scinde), was 
. Text-books should be . 

Enough (A.-S.) and Sufficient (L.) ; c. ample to satisfy; 
a, our desires ; I), our needs. 

Many a man has wealth, but not . No man has acquired 

knowledge. 

Illegible (L.) and Unreadable (A.-S.) ; c, that may not 
be read; because a, indistinct ; h, unfit, improper. 

Portions of Tolstoi are . Choate's hand-writing was . 

Happen (A.-S.) and Transj^ire (L.) ; c, used of acts 
and events ; a, their occurrence ; i, their becoming known, 
coming to publicity. 

The secrets of the Cabinet . The Mexican war in 1847. It 

that Bismarck and the Emperor were not in accord. 



Synonyms. 97 

Knowledge\l,-l^.) and Wisdom (A.-S.) ; c, attainments ; 
a^ facts^ truths^ principles ; b, power of judging and acting 
rightly. 

— — comes, but lingers. — Tennyson. is proud that he 

has learned so much, is humble that he knows no more. — Cowper. 

Education and Instruction^ both L. ; c, processes of 
mental culture ; a, by drawing forth from within^ by disci- 
pline, awakening of powers ; b^ by the pouring in of infor- 
mation. 

'Tis forms the common mind. is needful in the process of 

. Many a well man is not highly . 

Apprehend and Comprehend^ both L. ; 6% all of appre- 
liend — a laying hold of ; b, all that follows till mastery is 
attained. 

It is easy to that there is a God, impossible to him. 

Genius and Talent, both L. ; c, powers of the mind ; a, 
high, peculiar, creative, natural ; b, reached by a vigorous 
training, and a full command of our faculties. 

may be likened to a cistern, to a spring or fountain. 

needs opportunities, creates them for itself. Napoleon was a man 

of ; Wellington, a man of . 

bleach (A.-S.), Blanch (L.), and Whiten (A.-S.) ; c, to 
make white ; a and b, by removing the original color ; d, by 
superimposing a white substance, as paint, upon objects of 
another color. 

We walls and fences, cotton, and almonds. Fear 

the cheek. 

Inability and Disability, both L. ; ^, absence of ability, 
because the ability was ; r/, never bestowed or acquired ; b, 
though once possessed, it is now lost. 

We speak of the of the insane, of the of minors to own 

pro|)ei'ty, of the of wounded soldiers. 

? 



98 The English Language, 

Unbelief and Disbeliefs both A.-S. ; c, lack of belief; 
a, from ignorance or want of evidence ; b, from positive 
rejection of evidence. 

The atheist cherishes . The mass of people are in a state of 

regarding Darwinism. The Pharisees in Christ. 

Allude to and Mention^ both L. ; c, to notice; a, by a hint, 
a mere reference to ; b^ by an announcement, an account of. 

^'Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed by a kiss'* what ? Must 

expect to receive your reward in a certain place which 'tis not good 
manners to here. — Tom Brown, Laconics. 

Eteimal (L.) and Eierlcistlng (A.-S.) ; c, all of everlast- 
ing — without end ; a, without beginning. 

The doctrine of punishment, of God's existence. 

Tame (A.-S.) and Gentle (L.) ; c, applied to animals, 
docile and manageable ; a, made so by the art of man ; b, 
naturally so. 

The lamb is . The bear is sometimes . The zebra is not 

, and, it is said, cannot be made . 

Tolerate and JPermit^ both L. : c, all of tolerate — to put 
up with ; b, to consent to, to authorize. 

We should every one's worshiping in his own way ; indeed, we 

should it. 

Hatiofial and Reasonable ^ both L. ; r, all of rational — 
having reason ; b, exercising it. 

A being may do things that are not . Xapoleon III. was 

; his war with Germany did not prove him . 

Fault and Defect ^ both L. ; c, an imperfection which 
impairs excellence ; a, positive ; S, negative, a coming short. 

Excusing of a doth make the the worse by the excuse. — 

Shakespeare. A child with one arm has a , with a club-foot has a 

. A stammerer has a , 



ISynonyms, 99 

Neighborhood (A.-S.) and Vicinity (L.) ; c, all of 
vicinity— neavnesB ; a, greater^ more immediate. 

Houses in a square are in the same . Albany and Troy are in 

the same . We live in the of the sea. 

Exile and Banish, both L. ; c, all of exile — exclusion 
from native land ; b, from adopted, also. 

The Tarquins were from Rome. Those sent to Siberia go into 

. Coriolanus was . 

Safe and Secure, both L. ; 6?, denote exemption from ; a, 
danger ; i^ apprehension of danger. 

The child sleeps . Guarded by its pickets, the army is reasonably 

. bind, safe . Indemnity for the past, and for the 

future. — Pitt. 

Haste and Hurry, both S. ; c, quickness of moyement ; 
a, with order and plan ; h, with heedlessness and irregular- 
ity. 

A sensible man may be in but never in a . thee, 

nymph, and bring with thee. — Hilton. 

Deplore and Lartieiit, both L. ; c, all of lament — to suf- 
fer pain and distress on account of something ; a, without 
power to remedy. 

We the ruin caused by an earthquake. We • the wretched- 
ness of the poor, and the desolation of war. 

lyirection, — We give below a few groups of synonyms without 
marking the common meaning. Do with them ao requested in 2, 3, 
and 4 of Direction above. 

Idle (A.-S.), unemployed ; averse to doing anything use- 
ful. Indolent (L.) denotes a love of ease, or an aversion to 
effort. Lazy (L.), averse to bodily effort — more contempt- 
uous than indolent. 

Why stand ye here all the day ? — Bible, An mind is not 



100 The Englisli Language, 

capable of true enjoyment. Shall we stretch our bodies on our 

beds while the world is hard at work ? An mind is the devil's 

work-shop. 

Industry (L.) implies habitual devotion to labor. DiU- 
gence (L.) denotes earnest application to some specific 
object or pursuit. {Industrious, adj.; diligent, adj.) 

A man is who is actually employed, and if disposed always 

to be employed. 

Com age (L.), tliat firmness of spirit that meets danger 
without fear. Bravery (C.)^ that courage which shows it- 
self in outward acts. Gallantry (G.), adventurous courage. 
Intrepidity (L.), firm courage. Fortitude (L.), passive 
courage ; bearing up nobly under trial. Heroism (Gk.) 
calls into existence all the modifications of courage^ and 
comes from a noble devotion to some great cause. 

is useful in the hour of attack ; is of service at all times. 

The history of the American Revolution furnishes many instances of 

true . Washington and his troops at Valley Forge gaA^e the 

world an example of . The of the general in resisting the 

attack of a superior force, and the of his dashing officers were prop- 
erly commended. 

Distinguished (L.)^ standing apart from others in the 
public view, — as for learning and public services. Eminent 
(L.), standing out above the rest^ — as for learning, skill, or 
piety. Celebrated (L.), widely spoken of Avith honor, — 
as for benevolent deeds or discoveries. JRenoivned (L.), 
named again and again with honor for some signal deed. 
Famous (L.), widely spoken of as extraordinary, — as for 
talents or eccentricities. Illustrious (L.), possessing a 
splendor which confers the highest dignity, — as for virtues 
or noble deeds. Noted (I.-E.), well known by reputation^ 
— as for talents. Notorious (I.-E.), widely known, usually 



Synonyms, 101 

to disadvantage ; always so with us^ but not always in 
England. 

Sir William Hamilton was a metaphysician. The physician 

soon became in his profession. There are authors whom to 

censure would endanger one's reputation. Napoleon was ; Alex- 
ander was ; Washington was . characters excite many 

remarks from friends and enemies. characters are generally 

shunned. 

Calainit]/ (A.-S.), any cause of great misery or extensive 
evil. Disaster (Ij.), Si sudden and distressing event. Mis- 
fortune (L.)^ ill fortune; evil accident. Mischance (L.), 
or Mishap (S.), a trivial misfortune. 

A seldom arises from the direct agency of man. generally 

arise from the carelessness of persons, or the unfitness of things for their 
use. often come without any specific cause. A slight de- 
tained him. 

Abandon (L. )^ to give up wholly, — as vice, a ship. Desert 
(L.), to run away from ; to part from, — as a post of duty, a 
friend. Forsake (A.-S.), to draw away from, — as bad 
habits, companions. Relinquish (L.), to give up or let go 
under pressure, — as the grasp, a claim, purposes. Surren- 
der (L.), to give over (usually under a necessity), — as a fort, 
one's Avill. 

We have all and followed thee. — Bihle. We our hopes. 

The soldiers of Hannibal themselves to pleasure at Capua. He 

foolishly himself to the tempter. He will not the cause. 

Account (L.), statement of a single event, or a series of 
events taken as a whole, — as a shipwreck, a battle. Narra- 
tive (L.), a story of connected incidents, — as the events of a 
siege, one's life. Description (L.), a sketch or picture in 
words,— as of a person, a sunrise. 

Readers are cliarmed with Milton's of paradise. of the 



102 The English Language. 

accident were received from different sources. The of his advent- 
ures in Africa was given to the public. 

Speech (A.-S.)^ a form of words bearing on some topic of 
common interest to speaker and hearer. Address (L.), a 
form of words directed to some person or body of persons. 
Oration (L.), an elaborate speech for a special occasion. 
Harangue (G.), a noisy^ vehement appeal to the passions. 
Declamatioii (L.), delivery of a memorized speech or exer- 
cise^ as in schools ; loud and empty speaking in public. 

The mayor delivered an of welcome. The senator made a 

strong in support of the bill. The general made a to his 

troops on the eve of battle. Webster delivered the at the laying 

of the corner-stone. The audience pronounced it mere . 

Diction (L.) refers to the choice and construction of 
words where clearness and accuracy are at stake. Style (L.) 
applies both to language and thought^ and refers to the artis- 
tic character of the composition ; as^ a graceful^ polished, 
jooetic^, or forcible style. JPhraseologij (Gk.), particular or 
distinctive form of words. 

The of Burke was enriched with all the higher graces of compo- 
sition ; his was pure and clear ; his was, at times, cumber- 
some. 

Discernment (L.), keenness and accuracy of mental 
vision. Penetration (L.), power of seeing deeply into 
things. Discriinination (L.), capacity of tracing out 
minute distinctions and nice shades of thought. Judgment 
(L.), the faculty of comparing and weighing things, and 
deciding aright in reference to them. 

serves to remove all obscurity and confusion. pierces 

every veil which falsehood draws before truth. detects the 

slightest differences. When called upon to take any step, or act any 
pai't, we must employ . 



Synonyms. 103 

Beautiful (L.)^ having that assemblage of graces or prop- 
erties which pleases the senses (especially the sight) or the 
mind ; as^ hecmtiftd scenery^ woman^ or thought. Pretty 
{C), pleasing by delicacy or grace^ — applying to things 
comparatively small ; as^ pretty face^ flower^ or cottage. 
Handsome (A.-S.), agreeable to the eye or to correct taste; 
suitable ; as^ handsome face^ house^ apology^ or fortune. 

We should not say that a man is or , but he may be . 

sunset; tale; horse. 

Gleam (A.-S.), to begin to give a faint but distinct 
light. Glim^mer (S.)^ to give an indistinct^ unsteady light. 
Glitter (S.), to give a bright^ but broken and varied^ light. 
Glisten (S.), to shine with a soft, fitful light. Sjyarkle 
(A.-S.), to send off particles of light. 

The morning light upon the earth. A distant taper through 

the mist . A dew-drop in the sun. The ladies' eyes with 

pleasure. The child's eyes with delight. 

Harmony (Gk.), adaptation of parts to each other ; union 
of two or more sounds heard at the same instant. Melody 
(Gk.), a pleasing succession of single sounds. 

In a united family we see domestic . There may be perfect 

in a concert of voices and instruments. There may be in language 

or in the song of a bird. 

Plurality (L.) of votes (L.), more votes than those given 
for any other candidate. Majority (L.) of votes, more 
than half the votes given for all the candidates. 

There being several competing candidates, no one obtained a . 

He was elected by a of votes, but did not represent a majority of 

the people. 

Insurrection (L.), a rising up in arms against the au- 
thority of the government. Mevolt (L.), a violent attempt 



104 The English Language. 

to throw off one form of gOYernmeut for another. JRehel- 
lion (L.)^ an extended insurrection and revolt. Hevoliition 
(L.). a radical change ; revolt successfully accomplished. 

The American began in 1775, The government was weak- 
ened by frequent , incited by men ambitious to rule. These severe 

measures led to an , which was soon put down without bloodshed. 

This dissatisfaction soon grew into open . 

Abettor (S.), one who incites, proposes^ encourages. 
Accessor ij (L.), one who aids, helps forward, conceals. Ac- 
conijylice (L.), one who takes part, carries into eff'ect. 

The may escape the penalty of the law when he is morally more 

guilty than the or even the . 

Common (L.), often met with. General (L.), pertain- 
ing to the majority. Universal (L.), pertaining to all. 

To be able to read is so an attainment in this country that we 

may pronounce it , though by no means . 

Inconsistent (L.), not fit to be placed together. In- 
congruous (L.), not suited ; not in harmony. Incompat- 
ible (L.), incapable of existing together. 

Habitual levity of mind is with the profession of a clergyman ; 

it is with his ordination vows ; it is with his permanent use- 
fulness. 

CoTnpetition (L.), strife for the same object. Emula- 
tion (L.), desire to equal or excel others. Hivalry (L.), a 

personal, selfish contest, usually unfriendly. 

Honorable in business. seeks to merit success ; is 

contented with obtaining it. 

Fir^nness (L.) belongs to the will. Constancy (L.) 

belongs to the affections and principles. 

Without a man has no character ; without there is neither 

love nor virtue. 



Synonyms, 105 

Mepenfance (L.)^ sorrow for past acts^ with a change of 
conduct. JPenitence (L.), sorrow for sin. Compunction 
(L.), a pricking of conscience. Hemorse (L.)^ a gnawing of 
conscience. Contrition (L.) (a bruising)^ a continuous 
state of grief and self-condemnation. 

All men are subject to of conscience. Heaven can judge if 

be true. Seeing his reformation, we know his to be true. The 

of the prodigal son ; David's foi- the murder of Uriah. 

Economy (Gk.) avoids waste and uses money to the best 
advantage. Frugality (L.) cuts off indulgences, and saves 
vsystematically and rigidly. Parsimony (L.) carries frugal- 
ity to an extreme, involving meanness. 

is a virtue, is a vice ; may lean to one or the other 

according to the motive from which it springs.. 

Direction. — Learn to discriminate ; give original illustrations. 

The Connivance (L.) (winking) of public men at what is 
wrong is often the result of the basest Collusion (L.) (play- 
ing into each other^s hands). 

A few persons form a Cabal (H.) or Junto (L.), and 
intrigue secretly for poAver ; a Faction (L.) works more 
openly. 

Conceal (L.) facts or crimes ; Disguise (F.) sentiments ; 
Dissemble (L.) feelings ; Secrete (L.) goods. 

Consign (L.) goods to an agent ; Intrust (S.) money or 
goods to a servant. 

A Contcfnptuous (L.) opinion expresses contempt; a 
Contemptible (L.) opinion deserves contempt. Egotism is 
Contemptible ; treachery is Despicable (L.) (stronger term). 
Pitiful (L.) excuse, pretense, or weakness; Paltry (S.) 
trifle, evasion, or subterfuge. 

Clumsy (S.) (lumpish, heavy) person, shape, or expres- 



106 The English Language. 

sion ; Aivkivard (S.) (ungraceful) movements or manners : 
Uncouth (A.-S.) (untrained) manners or language. 

Droll (S.) fellow; Comical {^\,) adventure; Laugh- 
able {X.-^.) incident; Ludicrous (L.) scene or situation ; 
Facetious (L.) person or reply. 

An Error (L.) may be corrected ; a Mistake (S.) may be 
rectified or overlooked ; a Blunder (S.) is blamable or laugh- 
able. 

I thought the attempt Foolish (L.) at first, now I think 
it Absurd (L.) and even Freposterous (L.). 

Youth fid (A.-S.) employments or aspirations; Juvenile 
(L.) performances or tricks ; Fuerile (L.) (usually in a bad 
sense) objections. 

Cheerfulness (L.) or (Gk.) is a habit of the mind. 
Gayety (G.) is an occasional excitement of animal spirits. 
Mirth (C.) or Merriment (C.) is noisy gayety. 

Vexation (L.) springs from a sense of loss, disappoint- 
ment;, etc. ; Mortification (L.), from wounded pride ; 
Chagrin (F.), from either, being usually not so lasting. 

Substantial Comfort (L.) at home ; Consolation (L.) 
when we are in sorrow ; Solace (L.) ourselves with books, 
society, etc. 

A man may be Silent (L.) from circumstances ; he is 
Taciturn (L.) from disposition. 

Talkative (S.) child : Loquacious (L.) Avoman ; Gar- 
rulous (L.) old man. 

A Circumstantial (L.) account embraces all the leading 
events ; a Farticular (L.) account goes further ; a Minute 
(L.) account goes further still. 

'' The lohoJe is greater than a part,'' is an Axiom (Gk.) 
(self-evident truth). '•Honesty is the best policy/' is a 
Maxim (L.) (guiding principle). ''Light gaiyis make 



Synonyms, 107 

heavy purses/^ is a Proverb (L.) (common, pithy saying). 
^' What hurts us instructs us/' is a Greek Adage (L.) 
(very old proverb). 

Cloister (L.), a place of seclusion ; Monastery (Gk.), a 
place of solitude^ usually for men called monks ; Ntinnery 
(L.), — always for women called nuns ; Convent (L.), a com- 
munity of recluses ; Abbey (L.) or Priory (L.), named 
from the head, an abbot or a prior. 

Joyous or solemn Feasts (L.) ; a splendid Banquet (G.) ; 
celebrate with a joyful Festival (L.) ; a drunken Carousal 
(G.). 

Biased (L.) by self-interest; Prepossessed (lu,) in her 
favor ; Prejudiced (L.) against me. 

Frightful (A.-S.) dream or shriek ; Tre^nendous (L.) 
shock or storm ; Terrible (L.) catastrophe, hurricane^, or 
roar; Horrible (L.) deeds, sights, or stories; Fearful 
(A.-S.) contest or wave; the last, Breadful (A.-S.) day; 
Awful (xi.-S.) solitude; Shocking (G.) exhibition ol 
wickedness ; Shocking news. 

Massacre (G.) refers to the promiscuous slaughter of 
many human beings; Butchery (F.), to cold-blooded 
cruelty in slaughtering; Carnage (L.), to the heaped-up 
bodies. 

Ferocious (L.) in temper ; Fierce (L.) in actions ; Bar- 
barous (Gk.) in the manner of carrying out one's purposes : 
Savage (L.) in the spirit and feelings expressed in one's 
words or deeds. 

Atrocious (L.) crime; Flagrant (L.) act of injustice*. 
Heinous (G.) sin. 

Out of the Abundance (L.) (overflow) of the heart th^ 
mouth speaketh. Exuberance (L.) (bursting forth) o! 
animal spirits or of vegetation. 



108 TJie English Language. 

Extravagant (L.) in the use of money or in praise ; 
Lai'isJi {A.S.) of one's means or compliments; JProfiise 
(L.) in bonnties or thanks; Prodigal (L.) of one's time, 
treasure^ or strength. 

Povertij (L.), deficiency in the means of living. Indi- 
gence (L.), absence of the necessaries of life. 

Uncertain (L.) ^veather : Precarious (L.) means of 
living. 

Stocks Fluctuate (L.) ; a man Fluctuates between con- 
flicting influences. A man Vacillates (L.) in his opinions 
and purposes, and Wavers (A.-S.) when the hour for action 
comes. 

One is always surrounded by Danger (L.). One's life is 
sometimes in Peril (L.). Hazard (P.) life and property in 
a bold venture ; a life in Jeopardy (L.) (extreme danger). 

In Imminent (L.) danger of one's life : Imj^ending (L.) 
evils of war; Threatening (A.-S.) indications for the 
^future. 

Concern (L.). not indifference; Solicitude (L.) and 
even Anxiety (L.) regarding your future. 

Cautious (L.) at all times against evil : Wary (A.-S.) of 
hostile designs ; Circunisjyect (L.) (looking around) in mat- 
ters of peculiar delicacy and difficulty. 

Habitual hostility marks the Adversary (L.) : Oppo- 
nents (L.) are pitted against each other ; Antagonists (Gk.) 
struggle in the contest. 

A fortress is Defended (L.) by its guns and Protected 
(L.) by its walls. 

A storm or a fever Abates (L.) : a tumult or a passion 
Subsides (L.). 

Alleviate (L.) (lighten) cares or distresses ; Mitigate (L.) 
(make mild) punishment^ one's anguish, or the fierceness of 



Synonyms. 109 

passion ; Assuage (L.) (sweeten = soften) sorrow or angry 
feelings ; Allay (L.) (quiet) grief or wounded sensibility. 

A general or a local physical Debility (L.) ; Infirmity 
(L.) of the eyes^ etc. ; Infirmities of age ; Imbecility (L.) 
of body or mind. 

Corporeal (L.) substance or frame ; Corporeil (L.) {not 
corporeal) punishment. 

Kodcious (L.) weeds or food ; Noisome (L.) vapors or 
pestilence. 

I labor for the Hecovery (L.) of my property, but am 
indebted to another for its Restoration (L.). 

Difference (L.) lies in the thing; Distinction (L.)^ in 
the act of the person. To make a Distinction without a 
Difference. 

In a Definition (L.) we fix the bounds or limits of a 
thing; in an Explanation (L.) we make plain or remove 
some misunderstanding. A precise Definition ; a general 
Explanation. 

Sure (L.) that the sun is in the sky to-day^ Certain (L.) 
that it will rise to-morrow ; Sure remedy or guide ; Certain 
of the correctness of the theory. 

Accurate (L.) account, statement, or calculation ; Exact 
(L.) date, amount, or likeness ; Precise (L.) moment or 
meaning ; Precise in dress or language. 

A Captious (L.) person catches at the slightest faults; 
one who is Caviling (L.) makes frivolous objections. 

Final (L.) adjustment or determination ; UltiTnate (L.) 
success or object ; Conclusive (L.) argument or arrange- 
ment. 

A Speci^nen (L.) represents a class of things ; a Sample 
(L.) is a part of the thing, showing the quality of the whole. 

Ingenious (L.) mechanic ; Skilful (S.) physician; Ex- 



110 The English Language. 

pert (L.) bowman; Dexterous (L.) fencer; Adroit (L.) 
pick-pocket ; Clever (L.) S23eecli or trick. 

Cnnning or crafty J>6^'^ce (L.) ; nsefnl Continvanee (L.). 

Utility (L.) of an invention; Usefulness (L.) of the 
thing invented. 

Durable (L.) material or fabrics ; Lasting (A.-S.) re- 
membrance or efiect ; JPernianent (L.) sitnation or monn- 
ment. 

3Iercantile (L.) house or business ; Commercial (L.) 
education, people, or town. 

"We remove Obstructions (L.) and surmount Obstacles 
(L.).. 

That \vhich Charms (L.), Enchants (L.), on Enrajyttires 
(L.) (these words rise in their sense) affords pleasure for the 
time ; that which Fascinates (L.) or Captivates (L.) rivets 
the mind to the object. 

Affable (L.) (ready to speak or to be spoken to) even to 
the meanest of his subjects ; Courteous (L.) (suitable to a 
court) bearing or language ; Polite (L.) (polished) behavior, 
address, or manners ; Civil (L.) (belonging to a citizen, not 
rude) person or reply ; Condescending (L.) to his inferiors ; 
Complaisant (L.) (desiring to please) gentleman. He 
smiled with much Complaisance (L.) at all their pretty 
fancies. 

Elegance (L.) comes from training or art : Grace (L.) 
may be a natural gift. 

The Decorum (L.) of a public assembly; the Dignity 
(L.) of the men who compose it. 

The Pharisees were Scrnpidous (L.) without being Con- 
scientious (L.). 

Desultory (L.) (leaping) talk or remarks : Cursory (L.) 
(running) view or glance. 



Synonyms, IH 

Approbation (L.) of equals or superiors ; Commenda- 
tion (L.) of superiors. 

Benevolent (L.) (well-wishing) disposition or act ; Belief- 
icent (L.) (well-doing) acts or intentions. 

lyeference (L.) to authority^ to rank, or to the opinions 
of others ; Bespect (L.) for superiors or for virtues ; Esteem 
(L.) for virtues or for real worth ; Beverenee (L.) for per- 
sons or things exalted^, noble^ or sacred ; Veneration (L.) 
for age and wisdom. 

It is wrong to Disparage (L.) another's motives or ef- 
forts. JDepreeiate (L.) values or merits. 

We Solicit (L.) aid or favor; Entreat (L.) with strong 
arguments ; Beseech (A.-S.) with strong feeling ; Implore 
(L.) aid in extreme distress ; humbly Supplicate (L.) 
mercy. (These words increase in strength in the order in 
which they are here given.) 

Allured (G.) to evil by promised good ; Enticed (F.) into 
it through our passions ; Seduced (L.)^ or drawn away, from 
the path of rectitude. 

Assent (L.) to a statement (act of the understanding); 
Consent (L.) to a proposal (act of the will). 

Addicted (L.) to vice ; Devoted (L.) to literature ; Dedi- 
cated (L.) to religious uses. 

We Adfnonish (L.) with a view to one^s improvement; 
we Beprimand (L.) by way of punishment. 

JPitnish (L.) to uphold law ; Chastise (L.) to reform the 
offender. 

Plausible (L.) arguments and Specious (L.) appearances 
often deceive. His Ostensible (L.) motive may, or may not, 
be his real motive. 

Equivocate (L.) by using language with two meanings f 
Prevaricate (L.) by ^^ dodging ^^ the truth. 



112 The English Language, 

IJelusions (L.) of stock- jobbing ; Illusions (L.) of youth. 
Sojihistry (Gk,) is false reasoning of so subtle a kind as to 
render it difficult to expose its Fallacy (L.). 

Life is Transient (L.) (short at the best); its joys are 
Transitory (L.) (liable to pass away); its hours are Fleet- 
ing (A.-S.) (in the act of taking flight). 

We Should (A.-S.) (obligation of propriety) be neat in 
our person. We Ought (A.-S.) (obligation of duty) to speak 
truth. 

Tautology (Gk.) is a needless Repetition (L.) of the 
same meaning in different words. 

He was not satisfied Avith Mepeating his declaration, but 
went on to Heiterate (L.) it in various forms. 

Prompt I>ecision (L.)^ steadfast Deterinination (L.), 
and inflexible Mesoliition (L.). 

Fertinacity (L.) of opinion ; Obstinacy (L.) of will. 

What Evidence (L.) have you to offer in Froof (L.) of 
the truth of your statement ? 

This served only to Aggravate (L). the offense. It was 
said merely to Trritate (L.) {iiot aggravate) him. 

We may Felicitate (L.) a successful rival (wish him joy)^ 
but can hardl}^ Congratulate (L.) him (unite our joy with 
his). 

One may be Illiterate (L.) (not acquainted with letters)^ 
and yet not Ignorant (I.E.). 

The Idioms (Gk.) (peculiar forms) of a language; the 
Dialects (Gk.) of different localities. 

Incapable (L.) of learning or of a mean action ; Inconi- 
petent (L.) to a certain task ; Inconij^etent judge. 

Difficult (L.) problem (requiring more or less exertion) ; 
Arduous (L.) undertaking (requiring strenuous, persevering 
exertion). 



Synonyms. 113 

Believe a Doctrine (L.) ; obey a Brecept (L.). 

It may be right to Avenge (L.) injuries^, but never to 
indulge Hevenge (L.). 

Attitude (L.) of wonder ; reclining Pasture (L.). 

A thing is Ancient (L.) or Antique (L.) when not 
modern ; it is Antiquated or Obsolete (L.) when it is out 
of fashion or use. Ancient republics or temples ; built in 
the Antique style ; Antiquated customs ; Obsolete words. 

An Abridgment (L.) contains the more important parts 
of the larger work. A Compendium (L.) or an Epitome 
(Gk.) is a condensed abridgment. An Abstract (L.) or a 
Siunmarj/ (L.) is a brief statement of a thing in its main 
points. A Synopsis (Gk.) is a bird^s-eye view of a subject 
or work in its several parts. 

An Example (L.) represents a class of objects; an In- 
stance (L.) may be a single and solitary case. 

Common (L.) friend {7wt '' mutual friend ^^)^ country^ or 
enemy (belonging alike to all) ; Mutual (L.) benefit^ ser- 
vices, or friendship (interchange in the same act) ; Recip- 
rocal (L.) kindness or reproaches (acting in response to 
another act). 

Fields are Adjacent (L.) when they lie near to each other ; 
Adjoining (L.) farms meet or join at some point. Contig- 
uous (L.) implies touching or joining closely. 

Ample (L.) room or resources; Spacious (L.) hall, 
house, or garden ; Capacious (L.) vessel or mind. 

The taste and feelings of a Fastidious (L.) person are 
easily offended ; a Squea^nish (S.) person is over-scrupulous 
and easily disgusted. 

Grandeur (L.) of the ocean; Sublimity (L.) of the 
heavens. 

Before leaving this chapter we wish to say that, while the 
8 



114 The Englisli Language, 

meaning of some Avorcls is widened and that of some is 
narrowed, 

XXXYI. Some Words Change Completely in Meaning. — 

To the first meaning, a^ , another, \ ^ b is gradually 

taken on, and the signification is represented by 

The first, or a, signification is gradually crowded out, — the 
younger Jacob dispossessing the elder Esau, — until at last 
only the h meaning is left. Tyrant meant at first one w^ho 
by military force raised himself to an unconstitutional sove- 
reignty — a usurper ; then by degrees one who, besides hav- 
ing so raised himself to power, ruled despotically ; now, only 
a despot, whether coming to the throne legitimately or by a 
couj) d'etat. 

AVithout a knowledge of the changes in sense wdiich words 
have undergone, hundreds of such terms as these in Shake- 
speare, Bacon, Spenser, Milton, Bunyan, and other old 
authors. 

Orchard, thought, censure, still, reduce, dear, going, presently, 
sensual, shrewdly, futile, tracts, humorous, plausible, wizard, quick, 
whirlpool, quell, fact, manure, regard, ruining, and artfully, 
w^ould be misunderstood or not understood at all. AVe add 
that 

XXXVII. Words are Dropping out of the Vocabulary. — 
The pages of all the old writers are sprinkled with such 
words as 

Brent, stond, teen, eftsoones, swinge, sikerly, 
which, in all likelihood, will never again do duty. Their 
death is not an unhealthful symptom. " A man loves the 
meat in his youth that he cannot endure in his age ; '' and 
for words, as for food, ''the appetite changes. "" Only the 
thrifty tree outgrows its old bark, and then throws it off. 



CHAPTER XI. 

KEVY WOKDS. — PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

XXXVIII. New Words are Constantly Coming into the 
Vocabulary. — They enter to supply the demand which in- 
crease of knowledge creates. The changes in the yocabulary 
of a language^ unlike those made in its grammar^ are greatest 
during periods of high intellectual activity. As shown^ this 
demand is partly met 

1. By the Widening of Meaning in Words. — Of this 
we need not give illustrations here. When we learn some- 
thing new of an object^ we do not cast about for a new word. 
We simply add this new fact to the old f acts^ and stretch the 
old word to cover it. 

2. Sy Metaphor and 3Ietonyfny. — When we come 
upon a new thing resembling an old^ or sustaining any other 
noteworthy relation to it^ we may bring over the word de- 
noting the old^ and apply it to the new. Out of some kind 
of likeness^ real or fancied^ between the things^ we can, for 
instance^ apply head, the name of the upper part of the 
body, to one end of a pin, to the top of a cabbage, to the 
source of a river ; we can extend moo7Z to name the satellites 
of Jupiter and Saturn. Words so transferred on the basis ol 
likeness between the things, we call fuetaphors. From the 
material used in making it, we can call a sword, steel, and 
sails, canvas. Putting a part for a whole, we may speak 
of a ship as a keel or a mast or a sail, A word so used we 
call a metonymy. 



116 The Englisli Language, 

And even when the metaphor or the meton^^my yields only 
an additional name for a thing, how the expression gains in 
beauty and vividness by its use ! How apt is hubile applied 
to the South Sea Scheme ! and who does not wish he had an- 
ticipated Lowell in calling humming-birds zigzagging ilurs 
and winged emeralds ? 

3. J^y DistiiigtiisJiing befiveen Syrionyrns. — As said in 
the preceding chapter^ this discrimination does not actually 
add new words to the vocabulary, but it releases from a joint 
work all the words of a group^ and leaves each for a distinct 
service. 

4. ^eiv Words Come from Proj^er J>^anies, — Places 
and inventors, discoverers, and other |)ersons^ noted for 
some act or quality^ leave their names in nouns and verbs 
and adjectives. 

Martinet, tantaUze, boycott, canter, macadamize, petrel, maudhn, 
Jeremiad, Gerrymander, Puseyism, cereal, meander, money, dunce, 
jovial, gypsy, worsted, volt, 

and scores of other words illustrate this source of verbal 
growth. 

5. Obsolete Words are MecaUed, — Words return to ac- 
tive duty after a long Rip Van Winkle sleep. It would seem 
that hitherto men have not been able to carry on abreast all 
departments of investigation. In their advance they have 
moved not in straight lines^ but in lines that zigzag. When 
engrossed with one class of questions^ and off on what we 
may call one tack of their progress, they have been forced to 
neglect topics that once occupied them. Words needed and 
used before are not needed now, and drop into disuse. They 
become, in the language of the dictionary, first obsolescent, 
and then obsolete. But when the investigators have put 
about, and return, not over the old course, but in the old 



JSfeiv Words, — Prefixes and Suffixes. 117 

direction, and are absorbed in the re-discussion of old ques- 
tions, the disused words are wanted, and are revived, and 
re-enlisted into active service. 

6. Old Words are Cornpounded. — The compounds 
stand for a while with a hyphen between their parts, as in 
camp-stool, door-jjost, and foot-note ; the hyphen drops out, 
as in steamship, railway, fort7iight, and forehead, when the 
relation between the parts has become intimate. 

It is worth noting that this capacity for composition pos- 
sessed by Anglo-Saxon words gradually diminished, though 
it was not wholly lost, after they had entered English. A 
paralysis seems to have fallen upon them. Words grew in- 
disposed to combine with words or with prefixes, and prefixes 
to unite with words. The reason is not far to seek. The 
new tongue supplemented its available Anglo-Saxon words 
by a liberal employment of the JSTorman-French. The old 
habit of answering calls for words by compounding them out 
of old Anglo-Saxon material — a habit which all self -relying 
languages have — was not continued in the new tongue, be- 
cause of its free use of Latin. To employ the ready-made 
words seemed only just, and was easier than to make new 
ones. Consequently the facility and the felicity of combina- 
tion which Anglo-Saxon words once possessed no longer dis- 
tinguish them. They still combine, but with an awkward- 
ness that comes from loss of habit. 

7. We Borroiv from Modem Languages, — The Eng- 
lish go everywhere, and bring back many things ; and, along 
with the things, their foreign names. This accounts for the 
hundreds of commercial terms illustrated in Chapter II. 

8. We Use the Greek and the Latin, — We need not 
enlarge upon this way of adding to our vocabulary. We may, 
perhaps, say that those coming in from the Greek, ofter 



118 The EngUsli Language, 

teclinical at first, in time work out of special into general 
use. 

9. We MaTxS Many Words out of One. — Words in- 
crease by wliat we may call fissiparons generation ; by change 
of accent or of spellings one word multiplying into two or 
more : as : — 

Species, specie, spice ; spirit, sprite ; other, either, or ; rote, route, 
rout, rut. 

10. Xew Words by the Use of Prefixes and Suffixes, — 

ATords come into the Tocabulary by joining to words, already 
in, our hosts of Saxon and Greek and Latin prefixes and 
suffixes. These prefixes and suffixes are words, or relics of 
words, that have run down into mere formative elements. 
They combine, as we shall see, each with many roots, and 
with roots already in combination, and vastly increase the 
number and the exj)ressiveness of vocables. 



CHAPTER XII. 

WORD-BUILDIXG. — ELEMEN^TARY EI^GLISH. 

Note. — This work was suggested by the Sylhibus of the Regents of 
the University of the State of New York. The roots laid down in the 
Syllabus, and their division into Elementary and Advanced English, 
we have adopted. But we have (1) added many distinct roots, and (2) 
have taken all the root-forms of a word instead of one only. The 
derivative words have thus increased from many hundreds to several 
thousands — between five and six. 

Introduction. 

I. The Meanings of Moot and Stem, — The word root is used 
by philologists to denote the simplest and most primitive forms w^hich 
words once had, or to which they can now be traced. In this sense 
of the word — its rigidly scientific sense — the word root names that 
monosyllabic form which is the origin and source of all verbal deriva- 
tives. But usage applies the word as well to later forivis of these 
original and primitive words — forms from which, by the use of pre- 
fixed and safiixed syllables, new w^ords are produced — nouns, adjec- 
tives, verbs, and adverbs. Respectable as is the authority for calling 
these ''later forms " sfe^tis^ what we regard as the prevailing usage 
leads us to choose roots instead. 

II. Definitions. — A primitive word is one not derived from 
another word in the same language. 

A derivative word is one derived from another word ; as, un- 
manZ^/ — man being the primitive word. 

A compoxind word is one composed of two or more simple words ; 
as, forty-two. 

Prefioces and siiffioces are, with rare exceptions, relics of words 
once independent, but now run down into mere formative elements. 
They are used, each with a meaning of its own, to modify the mean- 
ing of the root to which in the derivative they are attached ; though, 
when many of them are used in the same word, it is sometimes difii- 
cult to detect in the derivative the distinct force of each. Prefixes 



120 The English Language. 

precede the root, and suffixes follow it. In the following paragraph 
the illustrative instance exhibits the root jarict^ the prefixes con and 
dis, the suffixes ion^ ive, and ly, and the six derivative words formed 
by combination of the root with these prefixes and suffixes. 

III. Explanation, — The work below, compacted for the sake of 
brevity, needs explanation. If, as is usual, two or more prefixes 
are to be united in succession with the following root, — or with this 
and the suffix after it, — these prefixes stand unconnected with each 
other by the + sign. If any two of these are to be taken together 
and treated as a single prefix, these two are grouped by the + sign. 
The suffix immediately following the root is to be united with it 
in its combination with each prefix or group of prefixes. If other 
suffixes follow, the same thing is to be done with these singly or 
in groups, the single suffixes or the groups being separated from 
each other by an or in Roman type. The suffix, or the group taken 
as one, between the first or and the second, is to enter into the same 
combination or combinations as did the first suffix. And so is the 
suffix or the group between the second or and the third, etc., and 
that which follows the last or. For instance, if under Junct we had 
con, dis +Jun€t + io7i or ive or ive + ly, this would mean that the 
pupil had to do as directed with co7i+Junct + io7i, dis -\-j unci -\- 
ion, con +Junct + ive, dis+junct + ive, con^juiict + ive^ly, dis-{- 
junct + ive-\-ly ; OY, dropping signs and the black letters, with the 
words conjunction, disjunctioii, conjunctive, disjunctive, conjunctively ^ 
disjunctively. 

IV. The Roots and their Order,— Most of the roots in the 
lists below are Latin, and are found usually in the Latin verb. We 
give first the root or roots found in the verb. These stand in the 
infinitive of the verb and the perfect participle. That in the perfect 
participle ends usually in at or it or t^ and of course denotes the act, 
expressed by the verb, as completed. The future participle root, end- 
ing in ur^ follows, if any English words derived from it are to be 
formed in the paragraph succeeding. The roots which follow in 
parentheses are mostly those into which the roots just spoken of have 
changed in their long sojourn in the French language and in English. 

If the roots in the lists below are from Latin nouns or adjectives, 
all that we need to say here is, that the roots in parentheses are modified 
forms of those which precede them. 



Word-Building, 121 

V. The Meanings of the JRoots and of English Words 
derived froTn them. — It is easy to ascertain the meaning of the 
root found in the infinitive and of that found in the perfect participle. 
These meanings are given or implied in the definition of the Latin 
infinitive which follows the roots themselves. It is easy to ascertain the 
meanings of the English words derived from the roots not in paren- 
thesis. It is not so easy to get at the signification of the roots in 
parentheses, and that of the English words derived from them. Often 
the etymological sense has faded out of the root ; and the words, if 
metaphorical, do not always suggest the likeness on which the meta- 
phor is based. The pupil will sometimes need a hint from the teacher, 
sometimes he may profitably consult the dictionary. We have thrown 
in liberally suggestions in parentheses and in Helps for the Pupil; 
but, where the pupil can seize upon the root idea, and, combining it with 
the meanings of the modifying prefixes and suffixes, can give the sig- 
nification of the derivative, he should be allowed to do it. As well 
do his physical exercise for him as relieve him of the intellectual 
labor which he can do alone. The main worth of this work con- 
sists in the exercise, which it compels, of the pupil's judgment. 

VI. The Lessons. — The length of the Lessons assigned has 
been determined by the hope that all the work called for by us can 
be done. But those teachers unable to take up all the root-forms 
given, can perhaps run two or three of our Lessons into one. The 
root-forms they should seek are easily found. They are those, of 
course, from which it is seen that the greatest number of the most 
useful words are derived. 

VII. Direction, — The roots are printed in black letters, the prefixes 
and suffixes in italics. The prefixes and suffixes are given and defined 
on the pages immediately following these Lessons under " Elementary 
English." Find there the meanings of the prefixes and suffixes used 
below, find in the Lessons the meanings of the roots with which these 
prefixes and suffixes combine, and then give the signification of the 
derivatives formed by the combination. Frame phrases or sentences 
containing these derivatives properly used. Do not look for the mean- 
ings of letters within marks of parenthesis and unitalicized. 

Note the changes, if any, which metaphor has wrought in the mean- 
ings of words. The literal meaning of a Avord is not always that which 
it really bears. From the likeness in position between the upper part 



122 The English Language. 

of one's body and the top of a nail, we transfer the name of the one 
object to the other, and speak of the head of a nail. From the real or 
fancied resemblance in function between one's head and Washington 
city, we may carry over caput, the Latin name of the head, and, giv- 
ing it to the city, call Washington the capital of the United States. 

Hernark, — We indicate here the way in which the work required in 
this JJirection may be done. The roots we take are Frang, 
Fract^ and Fi^actav^ Lesson IX. Turning to the end of these 
Lessons in " Elementary English," for the prefixes and suffixes, 
we combine their meanings, found there, with the meaning of the 
roots in Lesson IX., give the signification of the derivatives 
grouped in that Lesson, and illustrate their use. 



MODEL. 

Frangible, capable of being broken— a clay pipe-stem is frangible; 

/ra^f/ibility, state of being frangible, nape of the abstract quality — 
the frangibility of a pipe-stem ; 

infrangible, incapable of being easily broken — oak is comparatively 
infrangible ; 

in/ran J7ibility, state of being infrangible — the infrangibility of the 
oak; 

refrangible, capable of being turned back, or out of a straight course 
— a ray of light is refrangible ; 

refraugibilitj, state of being refrangible — the ref rangi oility of 
light: 

fragment, a piece broken off— a fragment of a tea-cup; 

/rr/grmentary, belonging to a fragment, in fragments— a fragmentary 
report of the speech ; 

suffrage (a probable explanation given in Lesson IX.); 

irrefragsible, incapable of being easily broken down— A's argument 
was irrefragable, irrefutable, a metaphorical use of the word ; 



Word-Building, 123 

irre/ragrably, in an irrefragable manner— he irrefragably established 
his point in the debate ; 

infringe, to break into — one's rights are infringed by the thief ; 

infringement, act of infringing — the infringement of the treaty, a 
metaphorical use of the word, since a treaty cannot literally suffer 
a breaking into ; 

fraction, state of being broken, a part — the fraction of an hour; 

fractionsil, belonging to a fraction — fractional currency; 

fractions, not integers, or whole numbers—^ and ^ are fractions; 

infract^ to break— to infract is to encroach upon; 

refract, to bend sharply back — water refracts the light ; 

infraction, the breaking— the infraction of the rules, a metaphorical 
use of the word ; 

refraction, the bending sharply back, half breaking — the refraction 
of light from the oar-blade in the water; 

refractory, bent away from the proper or natural course— the refrac- 
tory or stubborn child, a metaphorical use of the word; 

refractoriness, state of being refractory— the refractoriness of his 
child is a grief to the father ; 

fracture, a break — there is a fracture in the plate; 

fragile, capable of being broken— fragile playthings; 

fragilitj, state of being fragile — the fragility of icicles ; 

frail, capable of being broken down, weak, feeble — frail health or 
constitution, metaphorical; 

frailty and frailness, state of being frail— frailty of character, of 
the intellect. 



LATIN EOOTS. 
Lessors' I. 

To the Teacher. — This work of word-building may be difficult and 
slow at first. But it will rapidly become easy. The same prefixes and 
suffixes are constantly reappearing. The pupil will soon become 
familiar with their meanings, and ready in combining them with the 
meaning of the root. If necessary, the opening lessons may be 
divided. 

To the Pupil. — You will find the Model preceding this Lesson 
helpful to you. Following that, your work of building up words and 
illustrating their use would begin and proceed thus : e7it, one who, + 
root agr_9 to do, make agent =onQ who does, e.g., the agent of the firm; 
ency, state of being, function, +root ag, make agency = st8ite or func- 
tion of an agent, e.g., sold through his agency, or instrumentality; He, 
capable of, + ag^ to move, or moving, make agile = quick, nimble, 
e.g., the agile squirrel; ity, state of being + a^z7e=: quickness of move- 
ment, e.g., the agility of the squirrel. 

The prefixes, suffixes, and their meanings are to be found, as you 
have been told, at the end of these Lessons in '' Elementary English." 

Ag, Act J (ig^ g, actu)^ from dg e re^ dc tus, to do, more, 
urge on, put in motion^ drire. 

Ag + ejit or ency or He or il'^-\-ity; man (see this root, 

* The suffixes able, ahile, ance, ate, hule, cule, ence, ihile, ihle. He, ine, 
ive, ize, le, ose, tude, and u?'e often drop the final e, and become abl, 
ahil, anc, at, but, cul, enc, ibil, ibl, il, in, iv, iz, I, os, tud, and ur. 
Able, abil, el, er, ery, ibl, ity, ly, or, and tude sometimes drop the 
initial letter, and appear as ble. Ml, I, r, ry, bl, ty, y, r, and ude. 
Ary, ly, mony, w^y, and y sometimes change y to i, and appear as 
ari, li, moni, ori, and i. 



Word-Building, 125 

Lesson XIII. ) + ag -f er or (e) ; man + ^s^(e) + able or ment ; 
ex-hig + ent or ency;^ nav (see the root. Lesson XVI.) 
-\-ig + aUe or aMe-\-ness ; prod-\-ig-\-al or al-\-ity;^ amb-k- 
ig+{vi)oiis^ or {ii)ity ; co{ — ciim)+g-\-entoi:ency^ Act; 
act~\-ive or ive-\-ly^ or iv + ity or ^07^ or ion + able or or or 
r + ^55; counter y en, ex, over, re, re -h e^^, ?^ra7^5 + act ; counter, 
ex, re, trans + act + ion ; en + ac^ + ment ; ex 4- act + ^e^s / 
actu + al or al + ly or al-^ity. 

From ^(22; i ^^ r^, ^ai; i ^^ ^^5, derived from agere, come 
nav + igat + or or ^o?^ or (e) ; circum + nav + igat + or or 
^o?^ or (e). From the frequentative * ag i td re, ag i td tus, 
derived from agere, come agitat + or or ion or (e) ; co + 
gitat + ion or (e)/ From actudre, actudtus, derived 
from agere, come actuat-\-ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — We do not in these Helps define, but 
attempt to point to the paths which may lead to definitions. ^ Ex- 
igency^ something urging instant action. ^ Prodigality^ an urging 
into wasteful extravagance. ^Ambiguous, uncertain — note the force 
of ambi. ^ Cogency, the compelling force of the thought. The * ly is 
A.-S. — actively is a hybrid, its parts are from different languages. 
® Cogitate, to think, involving intellectual activity. 

Alt, from dl tus^ high, lofty. 

Alt + ar (raised) ; alt{i)tude. 

From the derivative ex al td re, ex al td tus, to raise, come 
ex + alt ; ex + alt + ed ; ex -f altat + ion, 

Anim, from an i mus^ mind^ intellect, feeling, spirit. 

JEqu (see this root, hesson Yl,)+ anim + ity ; tnagn (see 
the root. Lesson XIU,) +anim + ous or ity ; un (see root, 

* A frequentative expresses a repetition, or an increase, of the action 
denoted by the primitive. 



126 



The English Language, 



Lesson XX IV. ) + anim + oiis or ity ; pusill {pusillus, small, 
mean) + anifu + ous or ous + ly or ity ; anim -h 05 + ity ; * 
anim + ad {the ipve&x)+ vert (to turn); anim + ad + vers 
-i-ion;^ the true anim + (us) (L.) of the affair. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Animosity, the feeling hostile. ^ Animad- 
version, the mmc^ turned in criticism upon its object; is this meta- 
phorical ? 

Lessor II. 

Remark. — If the pupil is required to write out any part of his work, 
some form like this may be adopted — the necessary work with the 
parts of the word, outlined above, not being here set down^ — 



Word. 


Literal Meaning. 


Illustration of its Use. 


Manage, 


To do something hy the hand. 


The driver manages his horses. 
{Literal.) 

< The speaker manages his voice. 
{Metaphorical^ since the work 
is not done hy the hand, hut 
hy the organs of speech.) 



If the pupil should bring in as an illustration, The teacher manages 
his pupils, he could perhaps see that this use of manage is still more 
metaphorical, since the work is done by nothing physical, but by 
authority or personal influence. 



Ann, Anni, Annu, (enni^ en), from an nus, a year. 

Ann + al-^ ist or al + s ;^ anni + vers + ary ; ^ ii, cent (see 
root, Lesson IV.), tri, sept (seven), mill {mille, thousand);, 
per + enni + al ; super + annu •\-at-\-ed or at + ion. 



Word-Building, 137 

From an nu a lis, yearly, come annu + al or al + ly or ity. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Annals, sl relation of the events of the year. 
2 Anniversary, the annual return of the day which commemorates 
some event. 

Apt, (attf ^pt)9 from dp tus, fit or fitted,— the p. p. of obsolete 
Tb.^ dp e re^ to fasten, join together. 

Apt; apt + ly or ness ; i7i-{-apt; apt(\) -\- tude ; att{\) 
-^ tilde or tud (in) + ^^^; ad,^ in + ept. 

From the frequentative ad ap td re, ad ap td tus, to fit, 
come ad + apt ; ad + apt + aUe or aiil + ity; ad -f aptat + ior^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Adept, one skilled in something ; inept, 
nnshillful, 

fias, {bass)f from bas^ or has siis^ low, humble. 

Bas{e)] bas{e)-hly or ?2655 or 7nent ; a, de-{-bas{e) ; a, 
de + bas{G)+me7tt ; bass.^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Bass — what part in music? 
Brev, (brief) f from bre vis, short, 

Brev + ity or et ;^ brev{i) + ary; ^ brief (adj. ) ; brief -\- ly ; 
brief (a lawyer^s) ; brief ■\-less. 

From ai 'bre vi a re, ai ire vi a tus, derived from hrevis, 
come ai + breviat + io?i or (e) ; a + bridg + ment or er or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Brevet, applied to a commission, or to an 
officer of higher rank than that for which he receives pay. ^ Brevi- 
ary, a compend, a book of the Church, not the missal. 

Cad, €as, {cid^ cay, chf casu)^ from cdd e re, cd sus, tofall, 
to fall out, to perish, to happen. 

Cad + ence; ^ de + cad + ence or ency ; ac, in + cid + ence ^ 
or ent ^ or ent + al or ent + al + ly ; oc + cid + ent * or ent + al ; 
co + in + cid + ent or ence or (e) ; de + cid+{u)ous ;^ de-\- 



128 The English Language, 

cay ; ch + ance ; * mis, per + ch + ance, Cas{e) ; oc + cas + 
1071 ' or ion + al or ion + al + ly ; casu + al or al + ly or aZ + ty 
or i52^ ® or ist + ^c + al or i^^ + ry. 

Helps for the Pupil. — Add the meaning of al to that of incident, 
taken as a whole, and the meaning of ly to incidental, taken as a 
whole. In general, take the more simple combinations first, and use 
these as wholes in defining other derivatives. ^ Cadeiice, used of the 
voice only. ^ Incidence, a falling on or upon, as of one line upon 
another. ^ Incident, an occurrence. * Occident — the sun apparently 
falls down where? ^Deciduous — applied to what trees, and why? 
® Chance, a happening. ^ An occasion falls out or happens. ® Casuist, 
one skilled in cases or questions of conduct — ac, ic, ist, and ism are 
the common Gk. suflixes. 

Lessor III. 

To the Teacher. — The meaning of some prefixes seems almost to 
have faded out of them in certain combinations. To detect the force 
of de and re, for instance, in deceive and receive, below, is a task too 
subtile for the pupil. Allow him to give the proper meanings of such 
words (they are few) as wholes, without a hunt for the separate mean- 
ing of each element. 

Cap, Capt, Captur, {cip^ ceiv^ cept, ceipt, ceit), from 
cap e re^ cap tus^ toftake, seize, hold. 

Cap + able or aiil + ity or acioics or ac-{-ity or acious-}- 
ness or ac + it ^ -h ate ; i7i + cap + able or ac + ity or ac + it-h 
ate J prin {=pri7n, see root^ Lesson XXl.) + cip + aV or le^ 
or al-\-ity or al + ly; ^nuni (see root^ Lesson XVI.) +cip 
+ al or al + ity ; * parti (see root. Lesson XVIII. ) + cip 4- le * 
or {i)al ; in + cip + {i)ent or {i)ent -f ly or {\)ence ;^ re-{- cip -h 
{\)ent or (e) ; con, de, per, re + ceiv-her or able or (e). Capt 
+ ive or iv + ity or iv + ate or iv + at + ing or or or {i)oics ; ex, 
inter, pre-i-cept; de, ex, per,' re + ccpt-\-ion; de, per, 
pre, re, sus-{-cept + ive ; ex -^ cept -\- ion •{- al ov ion + able or 



Word-Building. 129 

or ; sus 4- cept + ible or iiil + ity ; "pre + cept + or or r + 6ss ; 
re-^ceipt; con, de-\-ceit. Captur{Q), 

From an tic i pa re {anti for ante), an ticipdtus, and 
j[?ar ^^c ^ j06« r^^ par tic ipd tus, derivatives of capere, come 
anti -^cipat^- ion or ory or (e) ; parti + dp -{■ ant ; parti -h 
cipat-k-ion or (e). From eman cipdre, e man cipd ties, a 
derivative of caper e, come 6 + mati/ (see root. Lesson XIII.) 
-hcipat + ion or or or (e). From oc cu pd re, oc cupd tus, a 
derivative of caper e, come oc + cup -f y or (i)er or ant or ^^zcj' ; 
oc + cupat + io^. From the frequentative 6^<? cep td re, ac- 
cep td tus, come ac + cept ; ac + cej^f + alle or 6^5Ze + ness or 
a/z.ce or er ; ac + ceptat + io^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Jif, a L. n. stem ending. ^ Principal, first 
in importance. ^ Principle, that which is fundamental, from which 
something proceeds. "^Municipality, originally, not now, a town re- 
ceiving the rights of Roman citizenship while retaining its own laws. 
^ Participle, a word partaking of two natures. ^ Incipience, a taking 
hold of at the beginning. '^Perception, the ac^ of taking, or if^a^ 
taken, through the senses into the mind. 

€arn, {carni^ charn^ car)^ from cd ro, car nis, flesh. 

Cam + aP oy al + ly or al + ^72/ or age ; earni + val ^ (im- 
perative -ya^e, be strong ; hence used in farewells) ; carni- 
+ vor (to eat) 4- ous ; charn -i-el j^ car{r) + ion. 

From car nd ti o, fleshiness, comes * carnat + ion. From 
the derivative in car nd re, in car nd tus, come in + carnat 
-{-ion^ or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Carnal, fleshly; how comes the meaning 
sensual, sinful ? ^ Carnival, a festival just before Lent, and so, ac- 
cording to Webster (but not Skeat), " a farewell to flesh." ^ Charnel 
houses are houses for the dead — vaults and sepulchers. ^ Carnation, 
flesh color. ^ Incarnation, putting into a body. 



130 The English Language. 

Lessor IV. 

Ced, Cess, {ceed^ ceas)^ from ced e re^ ces sus^ to go, yield, 
gire up. 

Ced{e) ; ^ ac, co7i, inter, pre, re, se + ced{e) ; pre + ced -\- 
ent or ence or ency ; U7i-{-pre-\-ced-\-ent-{-ed ; pro + ced -h 
ure J ante + ced + ent or ent + ly or ence ; ex, pro, sue + ceed ; 
pro-\-ceed-\-ing or 5. Als,'^ ac, ex, pro, re, sue ^ + cess; ac, 
co7i,^ inter, p)ro, re, se, sue + cess + io7i ; inter, pre + de, sue 
+ cess + or ; con, ex, sue + cess + ive ; ac + cess + Me or ory ; 
in + cess -^ ant ; sue + cess +ful or ful-hly ; an{=ante) + 
cest{ = cess) +or or r + al ov r + y j ceas{e) ; ceas{e) + less or 
less + lyj de + ceas{e).^ 

From the frequentative ces sd re, ces sd tus, we have 
cessat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Cede a territory. ^ ^Jscess, a collection, in 
any tissue of the body, of pus withdrawn from other tissues. ^ Success, 
a following, a result ; moz^^, only a favorable result. ^ Concession, a 
yielding to a demand. ^ Decease, a ^o^'tz^ /ro?7i life, death. 

Cent, {centi), from cen f i^wi, a hundred. 

Cenf y cenf + ur-\-y or ^^r + {o^^ * or enni + aZ or en -f ar«/ 
or en + (^r^* + a/^ ; per -\- cent + age ; ^ ceiift +2?e6?(e) (see root. 
Lesson XIX.) or grad{ey (see root. Lesson X.) or gram^ 
or meter (see root. Lesson XXV.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ' Centurion, a Roman captain of a hundred, 
2 Percentage, the rate per cen^ or on a hundred. A ^ centigrade ther- 
mometer. ^ Gram, the unit of weight in the metric system. 

Cing, Cinct, Cinctur, (shing)^ from cin ge re ^ cine tus ^ to 
gird, surround, enclose. 

^^^r + cingr + fe ; ^ shing ^ -hle-i-s. Pre, ^ suc^ + cinct ; sue 
+ cinct i- ly ov ?iess, Cinctur (e). 



Word-Building. 131 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Surcingle, a girth for a horse. '^ Shingles, 
an eruption encircling the body. ^ Precinct, a district within certain 
hounds. * Succinct, within narrow compass, concise. 

Clin, {clerif cliv)^ from L. form of Ok. klinein, to bend, slope, 
lean. 

Clin + ic or ic + al or i(:;+^;^ de+clen + sion j ac^ de,^ 
"pro ^ + c^if + ity. 

From m c?Z^ w^ re, in cli nd his, dec li nd re, dec li nd tits, 
rec li nd re, rec li nd tus, we get de, in, re + clin{<d) ; de, in 

+ din + able; de, in-\-clinat-{-ion ; de + clinatur{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — In ^ clinics, the patients recline. In ^ accliv- 
ity, the slope is ascending ; in ^ declivity, descending. * Proclivity, a 
leaning towards. 

Lessor V. 

Cor, Cord, Cordi, {cour)^ from cor^ cor dis^ the heart. 

Cor(e)^ cour-j-age)^ €our + age-\-ous or age + ous + ly ; 
clis, en 4- coi^r + age or ^^e + ment. Ac, con, dis ^ -f cord ; ac, 
con, dis -V cord -V ant orant + ly ov ance ; ac -h cord + i7ig or 
ing + ly J^ re-\- cord ;^ re-\- cord + er or er + SM2:) ; cordi -f 
al^ or al-Vly or al + ity. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Core, the /iear^ of the fruit. ^ Courage, the 
Aear^ thought to be its seat. ^ Discord, the Aear ^ thought to be the 
seat of feeling. ^ Accordingly, in accord or agreement with. ^ Record, 
a truthful copy, in accord with the facts. ^Cordial, adj., from the 
Aear^ ; n. , something cheering the lieart. 

Cur, Curat, {ur)f from cu rd re^ cti rd tus, to care for, take 
care of, heal. 

Ciir{e) ; cur + able ; cur{e) 4- less ; pro, sine + cur{e) ; 
se,in + se-hcur{e) + ly J se,in-{-se-i-cur-i-ity\oY (e); s{=se) 
'i-ur{e) I s-\-ur{e)-\-ly J as-^Sj in-^s + ur + ance or (e) ; re 



132 The English Language, 

'\-as + s-\-ur{e). Curate or or ive or (e);^ ac^^ in-\-aC'\' 
curat(e) ; ac^ in + ac + ciirat{e) + Ig ; ac, in + ac + ci^r + a^*^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Security, OTi^'^ freedom from care because of 
safety. ^ Curate — whose care or duty does he take upon himself? 
^Accurate — correct because of what taken? 

Curr, Curs, {curri^ corri^ cur, cor^ couri^ cours)^ from 
cur re re^ cur sus^ to run, more quickly. 

Curr + ent or ency ^ or ent-\-ly ; con, oc + curr -{- ence ; 
curri + culiim ; "^ corri + (dor) ; C07iy in, oc, re + cur / sue + 
cor ;^ courtier. Curs + org or ori + Ig; ex, in + cu7's-[- 
ion ; ex-\-curs-\-ion^ist ; ex + curs + ive or ive-hlgj dis-h 
curs + ive ; * pre + curs + or ; cours{e) ; cours + er or ing. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Currency — what circulates P ^ Curriculum, 
course of study. ^ Succor, to run under, or to the aid of. ^ Discursive, 
running from one thing to another. 

Diet, (ditt)^ from die e re^ die tus^ to say, pronounce. 

Acl,'^ contra^ e, inter, pre, ver { — verus, tvu^) -\- diet ; diet 
■\-ion or ion + arg ; lene, contra, inter, juris "^ (from jus, 
juris, justice), male, p^re, val{e) (see Lesson III., under 
Cam) + diet 4- ion ; contra, val{e) + diet + ory ; ditt -f (o) * 

(It.). 

From the frequentative die td re, die td tus, we have in-{- 
diet -{- ment ; '^ dictate ion or or or or + ship or or + {i)al or 
or + {i)al + ly or (e). From died re, died tus, to proclaim, 
devote, consecrate, we have ai, de, in, pre + dicat{e) ; ab, 
de, in, pre + dieat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Addict, to devote to. ^ Jurisdiction, sphere 
or limits within which one may declare or apply the law. ^ Ditto, saidy 
or aforesaid. "* Indictment, the statement in detail of one's offence. 



Word'Building. 133 

Lessoj^ VI. 

Digpn, {dignif deign^ dainty dain)^ from dig nus, worthy. 

Dign + ity or it + ary ; in + dign-\-ity ; con + dign;^ 
digni-hfy ; deign ;^ daint-\-y^ or i-\-ly or i + ness; dis 
4- dain ; * dis + dain -\-ful or ful + Z^ or /^^^ + ness. 

From m ^1^^ nd ri, in dig nd tus, derivative of dignus, we 
get in + dign + ant or ^7^^f + Zy ; in + dignat + ^'o^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Condign, suitable to the fault. ^ Deign, to 
think worthy. A ^ daiyity morsel. "* Disdain, not to think worthy. 

I>ue, I>uet, {duk, duchy duit), from c^i^ ce re^ due tus, to 
lead, to bring forward. 

Ad, con, de, e, in, intro, pro, re, se, re + pro, super + in ^ 
tra + due{e) ; due + al or at ; ^ con + due + ive or ive + ^655 ; 
co^', de, e, re + c^iec -f ^*5Ze ; duk{Q) ; ^ duk(e) + dom j dueh -h 
^55 or jr. Duet;^ duet + He ^ or il + ity; ai, con, de, in^ 
pro, aque {aqua, water), i;i(a) (road) + cZt^cf / «5, de, intro, 
pro, re + pro, se -\- duet + io7i ; de, in, pro, se + duet -h ive ; 
con + duet -h or or r + ess; con + duit.^ 

From ed u cd re, ed u cd tus, derivative of educere, we have 
e + dueat + ion or or or ed or ion + al or ory or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Ducat, first coined in the duchy of Apulia, 
and bearing the word ducatus, ^ Duke, originally a leader in battle. 
^ Duct, a, passage. ^ Ductile, capable of being drawn out, or elongated. 
• Conduit, a canal conducting water. 

£qu, {equi)f from db quus^ equal, just. 

Equ + al or al + ize or al-h ity ; co, un + equ-\-al ; co, i?i + 
equ -\- al + ity ; equi + nox^ (nox, noctis, night) or nocti + al 
or val-hent^ or val-^-ence or voc (see root; Lesson XXIV.) 
+ al' 



134 Tlie Englisli Language, 

From the derivative noun wquitas, mquitdtis, come 
equity- y or able or aU-^y ; in + iquit + y or ous or ous-\-ly, 
From the derivative verb ce qua re, w qua tus, come eqiia -f- 

Ue or Ul + ity ; e -{- quat + ion "" or or' or ori-\-al ; ad, m 
+ ad + e€2uat{Q) ] ad, in-^ad + equat{Q) + ly ; ad, in-{-ad 
+ equa + cy. 



Helps for the 'Pn-pil.—^ Equinox, time of egwaZ day and 
^Equivalent, of e^z/aZ value. ^Equivocal, doubtful, because open, 
equally, to two or more interpretations. In an ^ equation what are 
equal? ^ ^^i^a^for— what does this line divide, and into what parts ' 



; V 



Lessok VII. 
Fa, Fat, {far), from fd ri, fd tiis, to speak. 

Af^fa + He ' or Ml + ity ov U-\-y ; fa + lie ^ or lul-\- ous ; 
tn + ef+fa + Me; in+fa-^7it^ ov nc{ = 7it)-{-y ov nt-hileov 
nt+ine; fnultl (see root^ Lesson XXl,)+fa7' + {i)ousj^ nei- 
far^{i)ous^ or {i)ous-\-ly or {\)ous + ness. F'at{e) ;^ fat 
+ ar or al + ism ® or aZ + z^^ or «/ + ity ; pre -^-fat + ory j 
pre+fa + ce. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Affable (the hie of «&Ze), easily spoken to. 
2 i^a&Ze (the hie of hulum), that by which something is sa^<i or taught. 
^Infant, one unable to speak. ^Multifarious, literally, many-speak- 
ing, hence various. ^ Nefarious, contrary to what is divinely spoken, 
hence wicked. ® jPa^e, spoken by the gods or some power behind them, 
hence fixed, unalterable. ''Fatal, unalterably destructive. ^ Fatal- 
ism, the doctrine that things are fated and so necessary. 

Fac, Fact, Factur, (fic^ fy^ fair^ feat^ feas, fash^ 
featur^ feitur), from fac e re, fdc tus, to do, to make. 

Fac + totu7n^ {totus, everything); arti (ars, artis, art, 
skill), bene, of { = oj), ops, ability; help, aid), sacri (see 



Word-Building. 135 

root^ Lesson XXl,)-\-fic-[-(i)al or {\)al'¥ly or (e) ; bene 
+fic-hent or ence or (i)ary ; e// in-\-ef, pro, suf-h 
flc -\-{i) ent or {\)ency or (i)ent-\-ly; in + suf+fic-]-{i)ent 
or {i)ent + ly; de+fic-\-it^ or (i)e^2f or (i)ency ; ef-\-fic 
+ acious or acy; {fy^ meaning to make, is found, as a 
suffix, in derivatives too numerous to mention ; as, magni/y, 
rari/y, etc.) ; af+fair (Fr. a faire, to be done). Fact;^ 
fact -\- or or ory or or -i- ship or ^o?i ^ or (i)o^^5; ie7ie-\- 
fact + or or io^; manu (see root. Lesson XIII.) +/acf + 
ory;^ de, e/, m,^ per, im-h per + feet ; con, de, in, per^ 
im+per + feet -\- ion ; de, ef-\-feet-\-ive or ive + ly or ^^6 + 
ness J feat ;^ de-\-feat; feas-{-iile^ or iiil-{-ity ; fash-\- 
ion^"" or ion -h able or ion + abl-\-y; counter, sur {= super), 
for {foris, out of doors) +/etf.^* Manu+faetur-}-er or 
(e) ; featur(e) ; for+feitur(e). 

From the derivative adj. fdcilis and noun facditaSy 
facilitdtis, come fae + He or il + ity ; faeiilt-\-y ; dif-h 
ftcult ; dif-{-ficult-\-y; faeilitat{e). From the frequenta- 
tive af fee tare, affectdtus, come t \-af+feet; af, 
dis-\-af + feet + ion; af, dis-\^af, un-^rOoj-^fect^-ed ; af-\- 
fectat + ion, ^'^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ' Factotum, a doer of everything, ^ Effi- 
cient, able of or out of or from itself to produce something, an effect, 
''^Deficit, what is wanting. ^ Fact, something done; hence = truth, as, 
in fact, ^Faction, those acting together in opposition to others. 
^ Manufactory, the word remains, though machinery has largely taken 
the place of the hand. "^ Infect, to taint by communicating something 
noxious. A ^ feat, as of swimming. ^Feasible, that may he done, 
^^ Fashion, the mahe of a thing. " Forfeit, that lost by some misdeed, 
•*2 Affectation, an assumption, a trying to seem what one is not. 



136 The English Language. 

LESSOiT VIII. 

To the Teacher. — The words most frequently used should be 
selected if not all are taken. All are useful, some more useful than 
others. 

Fer, Liat, (lay), from f^r re. Id tus, to bear, carry. 

Con, de, dif, in, liici ^ {lux, lucis, light)^ of, pre, prof 
[=pro), re, suf, trans-\-fer ; circura, con, de, dif, in, pre, 
re, trans -{- fer -\- ence ; suf-\-fer-\-eroY ance or ing ; pre, re, 
suf, trans-\-fer-\-aUe ; dif ■\- fer -^^ ent oy ent-\-ly ; coni {co- 
nus, cone), flori {flos, floris, flower), fructi {fructus, fruit), 
pesti {jjestis, pest), voci (see root. Lesson XXIV.)+/er-f 
otis. Col, di, e, ol,^ pre, pro,^ re, trans ■\'lat(<d) ; col, oh,'^ re, 
cor -^ re, trans + lat-\- ion ; di + lat^-ory^ or ori + ness ; ah,^ 
il,'' re, cor + re, super -{-lat -{■ ive ; de { = di)+lay. 

From the derivative fer ti lis come fert + He ® or il + ity or 
il + ize or il + iz + er. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Lucifer, the light-hringe}^ — Yenus as morn- 
ing star ; by a strange interpretation of Isa. xiv. 12, applied to Satan. 
'^ Oblate, pushed, or borne, out at the sides ; ^prolate, at the poles. 
^ Oblation=offering. ^Dilatory, deferred, delayed. ^Ablative case is 
that denoting separation, bearing away from. "^ Illative, applied to the 
process of reasoning or inferring, ^ Fertile, bearing richly. 

Fid, from fide re, to trust. 

Con-\-fid + ent^ or a^if^ or ent-\-ly or ence or ent-{-{i)al 
or ent + {i)al + ly or (e) ; dif-\-fid + ent^ or ent-\-ly or ence, 

From the derivative //<^ ^ Z/5, faithful, come fid + el -\- ity j 
in +fid + el j in +fld 4- el 4- ity. From the noun fi des come 
per-\-fid + y or {i)ous or {i)ous + ly ; de+fy ;^ de-^ft + ant 
or ant + ly or ance j fai (Fr. fei or foy) + th or th -\-ful or 
th-\-ful'\-ly or th-\-ful-\-ness or th-\-less or th + less-l-ly. 



Word' Building, 137 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Confident, trusting, assured. ^ Confidant, 
the one trusted. ' Diffident, distrustful of self. ^ Defy, to disown or 
renounce faith in, to dare. 

Fin, Finit, from ft ni re^ fi ni tus^ to end. 

Fin{e) ; ^ con,^ de, re+ftn{e) ; con, de, re-i-/in{e) +ment j 
de, in + de -\-fiifi + able ; ^ fin + isli or i^A 4- ^r. Finit{e) ; 
finit{e) + Zjr or ^^^55 ; m -{-finit + ^V^ or 3/ or ude or (e) ; ^Ze + 
finit-\-ion or ^V^ or (e). 

From the derivative^ nd lis we have fin + al ; fin + al + ly 
or al + ^Yi/. Prom the derivative Jl nd re, to furnish a fine or 
tax or subsidy, we hdiYQ fin-\-ance or anc-\-{i)al or anc + ier. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ i^me, a sum paid settles, e/i^s, a matter ; 
j^^e, adj., what is well finished is fine, - Confine, to place within 
hounds. ^ Defijiable, that may have hounds, or an end, set to it. 

LEssoivr IX. 

To the Teacher. — Sometimes two suffixes are found in a word — the 
second adding nothing to, only repeating, the meaning of the first, 
Al, in genetical and generical below, seems only to duplicate the ic, 

Frang, Fract, Tractur^ (frag ^ fring)^ from /range re^ 
frdc tus^ to bend, break, subdue. 

Frang 4- Me or ibil + ity ; in, re ^frang + ihle or ihil -(- 
ity ; frag + ment or ment + ary ; siif-{-frag^{^) ; ir + re-V- 
frag -\- able or abl-^-y ; i7i+fring{e) ; i7i-\-fring{e)-\-ment. 
Fract-\-ion or ion-\-al or ion + s ; in, re+fract; in, re-h 
fract + ^0^ ; r(9 -\-fract + ory or on + 72-655. Fractur{e) . 

From /ra^' i Zis we have frag -h He or il + ity; fra + il ; 
fra + il-^-ty or il + ness. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Suffrage, perhaps from a hroJcen piece, or 
potsherd, used in voting. For other aid, see the Model preceding Les- 
son I. 



138 The English Language, 

Fund, Fus, {founds font) ^ from fun de re^fii sus^ to melt^ 
to pour, pour out, shed. 

Re + fund ;^ re+fund + er or ment ; found ;^ found -h 
er or ry ; font.^ JF'us{e) ; coii, dif, in, pro, suf, trans -{- 
fiis{e) ; fus + io7i or iblej con, dif, ef, in, pro, trans +f us 
+ ionj dif, ef+fus-hive. 

From derivative fti ti lis, pouring forth vain talk^ we get 
fut + ile"^ or il-\-ity. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Refund, to pour, or to pay, back. ^ Founds 
to melt, and pour into a mould. ^ Font of type. * Futile, vain, empty. 

Oen, Oenit, {geni, genUf gend, genet)^ from gig ne re (or 
gigenere)f to beget, produce. Oener, from genuSf 
generis^Mn^L^ race, class, species. 

I7idi {=in) + gen + ous ; ^ jiro + gen -\-y ; {gen is found as 
a suffix in many Greek words ; as, hydro^e;^, oxjgen, endo- 
ge7i, exoge7i) j homo,'^ hetero ^ + gen -{- (e) ous ; geni + aV or al 
-hity or al+ly or (us) (L.) ; in -\- geni + ous ;^ genu + ine; 
in-hgenu + oics^ or ous + 7iess or ous + ly or ity ; gend (the 
d excrescent) -h er ; en + gend + er, Genit + ive '' or al or 
or ; pro + genit + or ; con + genit + al ; genet -f ic ® or ic + aL 
Gener + al or al + ity or al + ize or al + iz + at + io7i or ^c or 
ic + aZ or ic + al-{-ly or 6>z^5 ^ or 05 + ^7?/ ; con -f gener. 

From the derivative ^6?^5, gentis, we have gent-\-W or 
ee? or Zy or r?/ or le-\-7iess or zV^. From the derivative 
gen era re, genera tus, we have generate ion or iz;^ or 
or or (e) ; de, re -\- generate ion or ive or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Indigenous, horn in, and hence native to. 
2 Homogeneous, like in hind ; ^ heterogeneous, unlike in ^*m6Z. * Genial, 
pleasant, kindly, ^ Ingenious, gifted with inventive genius. ® IngeJi- 
uous, high horn, frank, noble. ^ Genitive, the source case, the 0/ case. 
® Genetic, pertaining to source or production. ^ Generous, liberal, cath- 
olic; a quality supposed to belong to high, noble birth. ^^ Gentle, mild, 
refined ; a quality supposed to belong to those of a class, or gens. 



Word-Building, 139 

Lessok X. 

To the Teacher. — Seek for variety in conducting the recitation. 
One or two different English words, for instance, may be assigned to 
each of a number of pupils, at the board, or at their seats. These they 
are to analyze, placing the plus sign between prefixes, root, and suf- 
fixes, and underlining the root. An illustration of the use of each 
word, should then be written. This is more important than writing a 
literal definition. 

Orad, Oress, {gred^ gradUj gree)^ from grd di^ gres sus, 
to step, walk, go. 

Grad{e);^ retro + grad{e) ; grad -\- at + id7i or at + ion-h 
al ; in + gred + (^ent ; ^ gradu + al or al -{-ly ox at-\- ion or 
ate ;^ de-^-gree. Con, di, e, in, pro, trans -^gr ess ; ag, 
trans -[-gr ess -\- or ; ag,"" di, pro, re, retro, trans + gress + 
ion ; ag, di, pro + gress + ive. 

From the derivative deg ra da re, deg ra da tits, come de 
+ grad{e) ; de-\-gradat-\-ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Grade, a step in rank. "^ Ingredient, that 
which enters into a compound. ^ Graduate, one elevated to a grade or 
degree, * Aggression, the going out towards, or to, in hostility. 

Orat, (gratUf gratis grac^ gre)^ from grdtus^ pleasing^ 
deserving thanks, thankful; grd tis^ by favor, without reward, 

Grat{e) -{-ftcl or ftd + Ig or ful + ness j i7i-{-grat{e) ; 
gratu + itg or it + oics ; grati + tude ; in + grati + tude ; 
grac{e) ; grac{e) -\-fid or fid-hlg oy ful-{-ness or less or 
less + ness ; dis + grac{e) ; dis + grac{e) -j-ful or ful + ly ; 
grac-{-{i)ous or {i)ous-{'ly or {i)ous + 7iess ; a, dis^ + a-h 
gre{e) ; a, dis + a -\- gre{e) + able or aUe-\-ness or ail + y or 
7nent. 

From the derivative grat ifi cd re, grat ifi cd tus, come 



140 The English Language, 

grati-\'fy ; grati-^ficat-\-ion. From the derivative grat^ 
u Id ri, grat u Id tus, come gratiilat + ion or ory or (e) ; 

con-\-gratiilat + ion or ory or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Disagree, not to accord with or be agree- 
able to. 

Hospit, {hostf hotf ost)^ from has pes ^ ?i6s pi tis^ one who 
entertains, or a ^uest. 

Hospit -\-aV ov al + ity ^ or able ; host ; ^ host + ess ; host 

+ el or host -\-el + ry — 7iot + el j host -{-l-\-er= ost -\-l-{-er.^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Hospital, a building for guests, sick people. 
- Hospitality, the generous entertainment of guests. ^ Host, the enter- 
tainer. Hostler, now ^ os/^e?' ; once the inn-keeper, now the groom, 

Lessok XI. 
Ject, (jet^jut\ from ^'ac e re, J^c tus^ to lay, throw, cast. 

Ah, e, in, inter, oh, pro, re, suh-Vject ; de, e, in, inter ^ 
oh, pro, re, suh+ject-{-ion; ad, oh, suh+ject + ive;^ oh, pro 
•i-ject + or ; oh-\-Ject-\-ion + ahle ; ai-\-ject-\-ly or ness ; de 
+ject + ed or ed + ly or ed + 7iess; ^ jet; ^ jet + (t)y/ * jut» 

From the derivative ja ce re, to lie^ we have ad-\-jac-\-ent 
or ency ; circum, snper+jae + ent. From the derivatives 
conjic e re, conjee tns, and ejac n Id ri, ejac u Id tus, we 
have con +jectur + al or al + ly or (e) ; ^ e •\-jaculat + ion ^ or 
ory or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Subjective, of the mind, or the internal 
world, in distinction from objective, of the external world. ^ Dejected- 
ness, state of being cast down. ^ Jet, a throwing, or that thrown, forth, 
* Jetty, a projection, as a wharf. ^ Conjecture, to ^/iroi^ together, or 
throw out, as a guess. ^Ejaculation, uttered, or thrown out, sud- 
denly. 



Word-Building, 141 

Jung:, Junct, Junetur, {Joitif Joints Jointur)^ from ptn^ 
ge re, June tus^ to bind, connect, unite. 

J'oin ; Join-i- er; ad, con, dis, en, re, sub -{-join ; joint ; 
joint + ly. Junct + io7i ; con, dis, in -\-junct + ion; ^ con, 
dis, sub -\- junct -i- ive or ive + Iy. tTtincttir{e) ; con, dis-h 
junctiir[e) ; jointur{e). 

From ju gd re, ju gd tus, derived from jugum, a yoke, we 
get con+jiig-\-aV OY al-\-ly or al-\-ity ; con, siib-\-jugat'^ 
ion or (e) \ 

Helps for the Pupil. — '^Injunctions an enjoining, a mandate. '^Con^ 
jugal, pertaining to th.o^Q joined in marriage. ^ Subjugate , literally, to 
cause to^ass binder the jugum, or yoke. 

Jiir, Jurat, from jiirdre, jurdtus, to take an oath, 
make oath. 

Ah, ad, con, per-\-jur{e) ; jur-hy^ or or; per+jur + y 
or or; con -{-jur -\- or '^ ov er;^ ab, ad, con+jurat-\-ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Jury — what is administered to a jury ? 
2 Conjuror, one bound to others by an oath, ^ Conjurer, a juggler, one 
who practises magic arts. 

Lesso:n' XII. 

To the Teacher. — Do not let the pupil overlook the common meta- 
phorical uses of words. Have him see that in saying, Collect your 
thoughts, Recall or recollect what he said, Outline the lesson, you are 
using the words collect, recall, recollect, and outline not literally, but 
figuratively, metaphorically. 

Liat, see Fer. 

Leg^ I^egat, from le gd re^ le gd tus^ to brings forward, to 
send on an embassy, to depute, to leave by will. 

Al + leg{(d). Legat + ee or (e) ; leg-hacy;^ legat-\-ion ; 
al, de-\-legat-\-ion ; de + legat(e) •/ re-\-legat-\-ion or (e)/ 



142 The English Language, 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Legacy, that left hy will. ^ Delegate, one 

deputed or appointed. ^ Relegate, to send hack, 

Leg^, Lect, Lectur, (ZigT;, less)^ from leg ere, lectus^ to 
read, gather, choose, 

Xegr + ible or ^5/? + zYy or ion; ^ il + leg + ^*5?6 or i&z7 + ity ; 
col-{-leg{e)'/ e, in + e-^-leg + ance or ant;^ leg-\-end^ or 
end + «ry ; e^ ^ i;z + e^ iVz^e? + tig + z5Ze or iiil + ^V2/ ; 6?/^ ^ 7^65^, 
intel + lig + ent or e?^c6 or ent-\-ly. Col^ dia,'' e, intel,^ neg, 
re -\- col, se + lect; col, e, pre-\-di,^ re •\- col, se + lect-\-ion ; 
e, col + lect + orj less -{-on. Lectur{e); lecttcr + erj lectur(e) 
+ ship. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Legion, a chosen body of men. ^ College, 
a collection of persons, a seminary. ^ Elega7it — what would well-chosen 
manners or style be? ^Legend, once, that appointed to he read; 
now, a mythical story. ^ Eligible, qualified to he chosen. ® Diligent, 
opposed to neglige7it ; painstaking in the matter chosen. ' Dialect, 
language read and spoken throughout a limited region. ® Intellect, 
the faculty of choosing, distinguishing, knowing. ^ Predilection, a 
bias disposing one to a certain choice. 

liiber, from li her, free, frank, acting at one's pleasure. 

Liber + al or al -\-ly or «^ + lYy or al-\- ism or «/ -h ^2:6 ; il + 
liber -\-al or al + ity. 

From the derivatiye noun ?/S er Z^a5^ Z2.*Z> er td Us, we have 
liberty- y or m<3 ^ or in -\- ism. From the derivative verb lilj- 
era re, lib erdtus, come liberal ■{- ion or or or (e) ; de-^- 
liver y ^ de^ liver + ^r or ance or y. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Libertine, one whose liherty has become 
mere license. - Deliver, to /ree from. 

L<in, from ^t num^ lin e a, flax, thread. 

Lin{e) ; lin-\-en^ or z^; ^ lin{e)-\-ar or «^e^ or «? or (a) 
me^^ ; ^in(n) + e^y * ^m -h seed. 



I 



Word-Building, 143 

From de lin e a re, de lin e a tus, a derivative from linea, 
we have de + litieat + or or ion or (e)/ 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Linen is made of what ? and ^ lint of what ? 
^ Lineage, line of descent. * Linnets feed on what ? " Delineate^ to 

Liiter, from ^if e ra, a letter. 

Liter + al ^ or al-\-ly or «r^/ 

Prom the derivative adj. ZiY e rd tus come literat{e) ; e7 
4- literat{e) ; ^7 4- literat{e) 4- Z^/ or 71^55 ; i7 + litera + ^^Z ; 
al-hliterat + ion ^ or ^^^6. From the derivative lit e ra tu ra 
comes liter attir{Q) , 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Literal, according to the letter. ^ Lit- 
erary, pertaining to letters or literature. ^ Alliteration, repetition of 
the same letter at the beginning of successive words. 

lessois" xni. 

liOc, Locat, {locOf lieu)f from lo cd re^ lo cd tus^ to place, 
arrange. 

Loc + al or al-hize or al-\-ity ; loco ■\- mot (see root. Les- 
son XVI.)+^o^^ or ^not-vive; lieu ^ ten (see root, Lesson 
XXVIIL)H-a^^ or ten-rancy. Locat-\-ion or (e) ; col, dis 

-hlocat-^ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Locomotion, movement from place to place, 

£ioqu, Locut, from 16 qui^ lo etc tus^ to speak, to talk. 

Loqii ~\- acious or ac + ity ;^ col, ob, soli (see root, Lesson 
XXII. ) + loqu + y ; e, magni 4- loqii + ent or ence ; col 4- 
loqti -\-{i) al or {i)al + ly; soli -\- loqu + ize j^ ventri {venter, 
belly) 4- loqu + ist ^ or ism. Circum 4- locut 4- ion / e 4- locut 
4- ion or ion 4- ary or ^o?^ + is^. 



144 The English Language. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Loquacity^ talkativeness, ^ Soliloquize^ to 
talk alone and to one's self. ^ Ventriloquist, one making his voice 
seem to come from some other than its real source. 

LiUd, Lius, from lu de re, Id sus, to play, lau^li at, sport with. 

Al,^ de/ e, inter, pre + lud{Q), Al, col/ de, e, iV-{-lus + 
ion or ive or ive + ly. 

From the derivative adj. he di cms, we have Z«^d5i + (or) ous 
or (or) ous-\-ly or {cv)ous + 7iess. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Allude, to hint at, refer to, not to speak 
fully of. ^ Delude, to play with in order to deceive. In ^ collusioUy 
men play into each others hands. ^Illusion, a deceptive appearance. 

IVIagn, {inagni}^ from )ndg 7iiis^ great, 

Magn-hanim-\-ous or anini-\-ity j iuagn + atej magni 

-\-fy oxfi-\-er or fie + ent or flc + ent-i-ly or fie -i-ence or tude. 
From the derivative majestas come ^najest-{-y or ic or 
ic + al or ic + al-{- ly. From the derivatives ma gis ter, mag 
is trd tus, come ^nagister + {i)al or {i)al + ly ; master ; 
7naster + ly or ful or ship or less or ^; niagistrat{e) ; 
magistra ^cy, 

man, {jYianu, main)^ from Tita nt^8^ the hand. 

Man-\-ag{e) ; 'i7ia7i'{-ag{e)+me7it or ag{e)+aile ; man 
+ (a)cfe (dim. of manica, a glove) or ceuvre ^ or ^r^ ; ^ S^, 
^if ctc^r'^^ (f our) + ll^an + o^^eS ; 7nanit-\-al or al^-ly j manu 
-i-faet + ory J niami -\- faetur -\- er or faetiir{Q) ; 7nanu + 
7nit^ (see root^ Lesson XV.) or iniss + ion or seript (see 
root^ Lesson XXI.) ; <5^ + ^liam^ + 6^5 + (is) (L.) ; 7nain-\~ 
tain^ (see root. Lesson XXVIII.) or tain + able or fam 
-f er or ten-\-ance. 

From the derivative maniere (Fr.), we have 7nan{n)-\-er 
or er + ?«/ or er + U + ^^55 ^ or er + ism ; ^ ^^/^ + nian{ii) + er 4- 



Word-Building. 145 

ly or er-\'U + ness. From the derivative eman cipdre, 
e man cipd tus, we have e 4- man + cipat + ion or ctj>af + or 
or €ipat{e). From the derivative m^ 7^^^ -2^ Zi tim we get 
^w.ant + (pulat)4-20^ or (pulat)-ror or (pulat)(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Manoeuvre and ^ manure are the same word, 
and = work by the hand. The chief work on the farm is to fertihze ; 
hence it came to be called to manure, and the word was then trans- 
ferred as a noun to the fertilizer. ^ Manumit, to send from one's 
hand a slave, to release. ^ Maintain, to hold by the hand, to support. 
^Mannerliness, civil manners. ^Mannerism, peculiar style, or manr 
ner, offensively prominent. 



Lessok XIV. 

mar, (mari)^ from md re^ the sea. 

Mar + 1710 or ^/^ 4- er ; sui, trans, ultra + mar + i^i^ ; 
mart + time. 

Mater, {matr^ matri)^ from md ter^ md tris^ mother. 

Mater{ji) + al or ity ; iuatr + ix or on or on + ly or 07^-f- 
*2;^y m^atri -\- mony or mojii + al. 

From the derivative materia, matter^ we get ^tnateri-}- 
al or al + ly or al + ity or al-\'ist or al + ist + ic or al + ism; ^ 
m.at{t) -\-er^ or er + less. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Materialism, a doctrine attaching undue 
importance to matter. ^ Matter, the substance, and so, as it were, the 
mother of material things. 

Medi, from 'ine di us^ middle. 

Medi-}'{um) (L.) or al or ocr{e) or ocr + ity or ev {cevum, 
age) -f al or terr (terra, earth) -\-an + ean. ^ 

From me di d re^ me di d tus, we get m.ediat + or ^ or ion 



146 Tlie English Language, 

or ori + al or (e) ; im/ inter -h niediat{e) ; im, inters 
mediat{e) + ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Jfediterranean — the sea named from its 
lying between what ? ^Mediator, one coming in between to reconcile. 
^ Im, the negative. 

Ment, from menSf men tis^ the mind. 
Ment + al or al + ly J de + ment + ed. 

Merc, {merely merch, market), from mer cd ri, mer cd^ 

tuSf to trade. 

Merc^er or ant + He; com -\- merc{Q) ; Mere-\-ur + y^; 
com + merci + a/ or «Z + ly ; mercli + aw2^ or «7ic? (=ant) + i^^^ 
or ant + able J inarket (from niercat, the p.p. root); 
market + aJZe. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Mercury, the god of ^r«c?e. 

Merg, Mers, from mer gere, mersus^ to plunge into, to 
sink. 

Merg[^) ; e, im, sub-\-'inerg{^ ; e + merg + ent or ^/^c^^ or 
ency;^ sui + merg -\- ence, E, im, sicb + ^nef^s + ion ; im, 
sub'{-nierse{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Emergency ^ a pressing necessity suddenly 
arising. 

Lessor XY. 

Migr, Ifligrat, from 7iii grd re, mi grd tiis^ to go from place 
to place. 

Migr-hantj e, i7n + migr + ant. Migrat -\- ion or ory 
(birds) or (e) ; e, im, trans + migrat -\- io7i or (e). 

Iflir, Mirat, {fnira^ mirr), from rnirdri, mirdtuSf to 
look at, wonder or marvel at. 

Mir + age;'' ad-^-mir + abW or abl-\-y or er or ing or ing 



Word-Building, 147 

-{-ly J mira-^-de {= culum) or cul + ous or cul + ous + ly ; 
mirr + or, Ad + mirat + ion. 

The Fr. merveille, from the derivative mi rah % lis, gives 

Lis marv + el or el + ous or el-hous + ly or el + ous-^ness. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Mirage — what is the optical illusion, called 
mirage, which causes wonder 9 ^ Admirable, the mere wonder passing 
now into approbation. 

Mitt, Miss, {mit^ mis)^ from mit te re, mts sus^ to send, cast, 
throw, let go. 

Ad, re-hmitt + ancej re + mitt + ent^ or er ; inter + mitt 
•Vent^ or ing + ly ; com + mitt -\- ee or al ; ad, com, e, inter, 
Tnanu^ 0, per, re, suh^ trans + vnit. Miss + ive or al ^ or He * 
or ion or ion + ary ; re + miss ; re + i?^^«s + ness ; ^ ad, com, 
e, inter, manu^ o, per, re, sub, trans + iniss + ion ; ad, per, 
trans + ifviiss 4- Hie ; per, sui + miss + ive ; com + Tviiss + io^ 
-her; com, e -\- miss + ary ; com -{-pro, de, pre, pro,^ sur + 
'inis{e). 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Remittent, slackening in effort. ^ Inter- 
mittent, periodic in effort. ^ Missal, the mass-book — mass from missa 
est (the congregation is dismissed), with which words the service closes. 
^ Missile, that thrown, ^ Remissness, slackness. ^ Promise, to put, or 
seTicZ forth, a binding declaration. 

Mon, Monit, (m^onu)^ from two tie re^ fnon i tus^ to advise, 
remind, warn. 

Ad-h mon + ish ; sum + twon / ^ 5^772 + i^oii -Ver or 5 ; 
monu + ment^ or menthol, Monit + or or ^o/^ or or^/ or 
or + ship ; ad, pre 4- monit + io^ or iVe or ory. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Summon, to warfi to appear. ^ Monument^ 
that by which people are reminded of something. 



148 The Englisli Language, 

IHort, from niors^ nior tis, death. 

Mort + al or al + ity or al + ly or jnain^ or gage^ ; im-f 
niort + al or al + ize or al + ity. 

From the derivative mor tiji cd re, mor tifi cci tus, come 
niorti +fy or flcat + io?^ ^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Ifortmain, property passing to the Church 
\yas inalienable, passed, as it were, into the haiids of a dead man. 
^ Mortgage, land held by mortgage became lost, or dead, to the mort- 
gagor, on breach of the condition. ^ Mortification, the metaphorical 
meaning is death of pride. 

Lessors' XVI. 

To the Teacher. — For oral recitation, a Latin root-word, movere, 
for instance, may be put on the board. Different pupils may name the 
several root-forms from this. These may be written in a column 
beneath. Other pupils may be asked to give the prefixes and the suf- 
fixes that unite with each root-form. Write the prefixes in a column 
to the left of the root-form and the sufQ.xes in a column to the right, 
thus : — 



able 



im 1 Til' , ' cLbl-^y 
re I \ ed 



c 1 { er 



com ! ,, ! ion 
pro \ ^<>* ] ire 

re 



J I or, etc. 

etc. 

Then let other pupils combine these into words, explain the mean- 
ing of each prefix, root-form, and suflSx, and illustrate the use of the 
words which they compose. 

mov, Mot^ {7no)f from mo ve re^ mo fus^ to move. 

Mov-\-er or able or aU + y ; im -\- mov -\- able ox abl + y; 



Word-Building, 149 

re -\- mov -\- al or able or ed + ness or (e) ; jnov{e) ; 7nov{e) 
+ ment. Mot + ion or or or ive;^ e + mot + ion^ or io^ + 
«? or ive; pro + mot + ion or iVe or er ; pro, re-hfnot{e) ; 
com -\- mot -\- ion ; mo-^-menf^ oy ment-Vary or ment + ly or 
^e^^^ + o^^5 ^ or ment + o^^5 + Z^ or ment + (um) (L. ) ; ^no + 6 
(the 5 from the ending Mlis or hile in mobilis^ mobile, easily 
moved). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Motive^ a reason for change of purpose, for 
movement, ^ Emotion, movement, agitation, of the feelings ; the feel- 
ing itself. ^Moment, an instant of time; of importance. '^Moment- 
ous, of moving force. 

Mult or Multi, from mul tus^ manj. 

Multi + /w^6! or tud 4- (in) + ous or jpZi/ (see Lesson XX. for 
the four roots ply, plic, pie, pli) or plic + ity or pie or pli 
+ er or plic 4- and or plicat + io/^ or form, (shape or form) 
or form -\- ity or far + (i)ot^s. 

Mun^ (jnou^ niutii)^ from t?*t^ nus, mUtieriSf a duty, an 
office, a gift. 

Im + fuun + ^Vy ; ^ com -4- iia^i^t^ + ^/y ^ or ^^^ or to^ or (e) ; 
com + fuon;^ com -\- Tnon -\- er or ly or al-\-ty or ^^55 or 5; 
^nuni -\-fic + ^/^^^ ^ or >jc + ^?zz^ -f ly or >ic-|-6^c^. 

From the derivatives com muni care, com mu ni cd tus , 
and re mu ne rd ri, re mu ne rd tus, we have com-hmunic H- 
ant or able ; com + m^unicat + ion or ive or (e) ; ex -\- com 
-{- municat + ion or (e); re + muner + able j re-\-miinerat 
-hion^ or m or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Immunity, exemption from duty. - Com- 
munity, all sharing. ^ Common, shared by all. * Munificent, making 
lavish gifts, ^ Remuneration, giving, or that given, in return. 



150 The English Language, 

Nasc, IVat, Natur, from nds ci^ nd tus^ to be born. 

Nasc + ent or e7icy,^ Nat + al or ion^ or ion -{-al or ion + 
al-hitg or ion-hal + ize or ive or iv + ityj in, cog + nat\e), 
Natiir-^-alov al-\-ly or al + ness or al + ize or al-\-ist or «? + 
iz-\-at + ion or (e) ; ^ ^^?2, prefer, super -\-natiir-\-al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Nascency, state of 5i>^/i. Etymologically, 
but not in fact, '^nation names a people of the same birth or stock. 
^Cognate, born with one. "^Nature, etymologically, the idea of birth 
predominates. 

Nav, from nd vis, ship. 

Nav (e); ^ nav-\-al or ^. (For navigate, etc.^ see Ag.) 
From the derivatives ^^2^ ^^ cus and /^a^^ 56 a re, nan se a- 

tus, we have naiit + i(? + al or iV -\-al + ly; naiise + oz^5 or (a) ; ^ 

nauseat + ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Nave, the body of the church, likened to a 
s/i^p. -^ Nausea, sea-sickness — appropriate ? 



Lesso:n^ XYII. 

IVot, from 7ios ce re, no tus, or griio.s ce re^ gno tus^ to know. 

Not (e); ' not + er or e^i or ^c<9 or ice ■\- able or ^07^ or ^07^ + 
«Z or ori-hous.'^ 

From the derivative no tifi cd re, no tifi cd tus, to make 
known, we have noti^fy or ficat^ion. From ig nordre, 
not to know, we have i {= i?i) + gnor + ant or ance or 
am?/5 ^ or (e). From the derivatives no hi lis, ig no hi lis, we 
have no-}- hie ^ or hil + ity or hl + y or hie + ness; i + gno^- 
lie or hl-\-y or hle-[-ness. From no tare, notdtus, come 
not + ahle or ahl-\-y or ahil + ity; notat + ion; de, con-j- 
not{e)i an, de, con -^ notat + ion j an + notat{e). From 



Word-Building. 151 

cog nos ce re, cog ni tus, we have co + gniz -f ance or ant or 
able; co -r gnit + ion ; re + co-hgniz + ance or able or (e) ; 
re-\-co-\-gnit + ion; in + co + gnit -\- {o) (It.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ iVb^e, a mark by which a thing is known. 
^Notorious, with us, known for bad qualities. ^Ignoramus, a block- 
head ; but really, amus is the 1st per. plu. indie, ending of L. verb ; 
hence ignoramus = we are ignorant. '^ Nohle, known for good qualities. 

Xumer, ^Kfumerat, {number), from nu me rd re, nu me* 
rd tus, to countj to number. 

Number + al or aI-\-ly or ous or ous + ly or ous + ness or io 
+ al or ic + al + ly; iii + numer + able j super ^- mimer + 
ary ;^ member; munber + er or less, Nu^nerat-rion or 
or or (e); e-\-munerat-\-ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Supernumerary, one in excess, 

Xunci, IVunciat, {nounc), from iii^ii ci a rc^ n^fn ci a f tes^ 
to proclaim, report. 

]Vunci-\-{o^) (It.); an, de,^ e, pro,^ re-hnounc{e); an^ 
de, e-\-nounc{e) +menf ; pro + noiinc{e) + able ; an, e, re + 
nunciat -\- ion or (e) ; pro-\-nuneiat-\-ion ; de + nunciat 
+ ion or or or ory. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Nuncio, a papal ambassador. '^ Denounce^ 
to proclaim threateningly. ^Pronounce, to utter or speak forth. 

Oeul, from 6c u lus, eye. 

# 

Ocul + ar or ist or ar + ly ; bin + ocul + ar. 
From the derivative in oc u Id re, in oc u Id tus, we have i7i 
■\- oculat -\- ion or or or (e).^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Inoculate, to engraft a bud, or eye, of one 
tree into another. 



152 The English Language. 



Lessors- XVIII. 

Par, Parat, {ver^ pair)^ from pa rd re, pa rd tuSf to see, 
to get ready, or make ready. 

Co7n, pre+par (q)\ com, in + com, in-\-se, re, ir-{-re, se-\- 
par-^able or ahl^y; cJ0?;^4-par + (is) {¥x,)-\-on; se, dis 

-^se-{-ver ; se,dis-\-se + ver-\-ance; se-\-ver-\-aV or al-{- 
ly ; re ^ pair. Pre, re, se-^parat-\-ion ; com-\-parat'{- 
ive; pre+parat + ory ; ap -\- parat + {vls>) (L.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Several, once, many taken separately ; now, 
not necessarily one by one. 

Pari, from Fr. parler^ to talk. 

Parl-\-ance or or'^ or (\di)ment'^ or {idi)me7it + ary or 
{m)7nent -{- ari ^- an or ey.^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Farlor, the room for talk. - Parliament, 

talking, and then a place for it. ^ Farley, a conference. 

Part, {port, partly par, pars), from pars, partis, a 

piece, portion^ share. 

Tart ; a, counter -{- jy art ; partly or ly ; a, de, co7n-{- 

part^ment; port ^- ion or ion -\- less ; ap ^ port -\- ion or ion 
-\-ment ; pro ■\- port -{-ioyi^ or ion-{-al or ion^aile ; 2>«*"^^ + 
aP or al + ly or al -hit y or cle or cul + ar or cnl + ar + ize or 
eiil + ar + ity; 2>«?' + ceZ; i9a?'s(e).^ 

From pa?^ ti re, par ti tus, to divide, come partita ion or 
ive or ive + ly ; de, ini-\-part; de-{-part-\-ure ; 29arfii + 
er ^ partita ion -\- er ; partn^-er ^-ship, (For participate, 
etc., see Cap.) 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Proportion, relation between parts, harmoni- 
ous arrangement of parts, etc. ^ Partial, appertaining to a part in 
distinction from the whole. ^ Parse^ to tell the parts of speech. 



Word-Building. 153 

Past, Pastur, from pds ci^ pas tus^ to feed. 

JPast-\-or^ or or + al or or + ship or or -hate; re+past.^ 
JPasttu^{e) ; pastiir + age or er. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Pastor, a shepherd, real or metaphorical. 
^ Repast, a meal, food, 

Pat, Pass, {pati)f from pa^ ;f^ ri^ pds sus^ to suffer. 

C'(9?7z/ in -\- com -\- pcit -\- iile or ibil + ity or ihl-\-y ; pati + 
enf^ or ent-vly or e^c^^; im^pati^ent or ent-\-ly or 6/^c6. 
JPass + io^ or iVe or io^z + ^?^(3 ; i/TZ ^pass + iV^ or io?z ^ed ;^ 
com Ar pass -h ion or ion ^ ate or ion-^ate-\-ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Compatible, agreeing with each other, each 
suffering the other. - Patient, suffering, the one suffering, but with- 
out murmur. ^ Impassioned, the m adding force, intensity. 

Pater, {patr^ patri), from />a ter, pd tris, father ; pa tri a, 
father-land. 

I*ate7^-h{-n)al or {n)ity ; patr + 07i or on -{-age or 07i-\-ize 
or 0^ + ess ; patri + 7?207i?/ ; patri + o^ or ot + 2C or o^ 4- ism 
or 0^ + ic ■hal-\-ly ; com ^ patri + ot; ' ^2; + patri -^at^- ion 
or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Compatriot, a fellow-countryman. 

Lessor XIX. 

To the Teacher. — In reviews you may give Latin root-words, and 
require pupils to write or give all the root-forms from these, used in 
English, with one or more words in which each root-form is found. 

The teacher will see that a great variety in manner of recitation may 
easily be devised. 

Ped, from pes^ pe dis^ foot. 

Bed-{-al or estr-\-ian or est-\-al; bi, quadru-\-ped ; 
li, quadru i- ped -{- aL 



154 The English Language. 

From the derivatives expe di re, expe di tus, to free from, 
to make easy^ and impe dire, impe di tus, we get ex-\-pedi 
' -\-ent or ency ; ex -\- pedit -}- ion or {i)ous + lg; ^ im+ped{e) ; 
im-\-pedi + ment.^ 

Helps for the VMpil.— ^Expeditiously, with hurrying feet. ^ Im- 
pediment, literally, something by which the feet are obstructed ; how 
used metaphorically? 

Pell, Puis, {p^l? pelt) J from pel le re^ pul sus^ to drive, push^ 
strike. 

Pro -\- pell + er; com, dis, ex, im, pro, re -^ pel. JPuls{e);'^ 
im, re-{-ptils{e); com, ex, im, pro, re^-2mls + ion or ive; 
pelC 

From, the derivative pul sd re, pul sd tus, we have pulsat 
-\-ion or ive or ory or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Pulse, the blood driven in heats. ^ Pelt, to 
heat, 

Pcnd, Pens, from pen de re, pen sus, to hang, rely iipou* 

Ap, de, im, sus-j-jyend ; pend-\-ant or ent or ul-\-{mn) 
(L. ) Qx ul-V ous ; de, i7i + de -\-pend + ent or ence ; ap +pend 
-^age or ixj sus-^peud-^-er-^-s, Pens + ilej sus+j^ens^ 
io7i or (e). 

Pend, Pens, (pendi)^ from x^^^ ^^^ ^^? P^^^ sus^ to vreigh 
out, consider, pay out. 

Com, ex, s { = dis), sti {stips, a gift given in small coin) + 
pend; com+jr>en^i+ (um ^ ) (L.) or ous or ous-\-ly ; sti^ 
pendi + ary. Dis,"^ ex ^+pens{e) ; ex -\- jyens -i- ive or ive-\-ly 
or ive + ness j pens + ion or ion + er or ive * or ive + ly. 

From the derivatives com pen sd re, com pen sd tus, and 
dis pen sd re, dis pen sd tus, we get com-\-pensat + ion or 



Word-Building, 155 

(e) ; re-{-com-\-pens{e)', dis -\- pens -{- er or able or able + ness 
or ary ; ^ in + dis +pens + able or able + 7^e55 ; dis +pensat 
+ io^ ^ or ive or or^/. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Compendium, an abridgment. ^ Dispense, 
to (Zea? ^w^ in portions; what is it to dispense with 9 ^ Expense, liter- 
ally, weighed out, as gold still is in the Bank of England ; cost. 
^ Pensive, thoughtful, considering, ^ Dispensary — place where what is 
done? ^Dispensation, the act of, or the government, meting out. 

Pet, Petit, {petUf peat)^ from pet ere peti tus^ to ask, to^ 
seek, to rush at, to fiy to. 

Com-\-pet{Q)'^ com -\- pet + ent or ence ; in + com+pet + ent 
or ence ; im + pet -\- (us) (L.); centri (center) +2>ef + «?; i'tn 
-\-petu + ous or ous + ly or ous + ness or os -f iY^ ; re -{-peat ; 
re+peat + er or ed or ed-^ly, Petit -{-ion or ion + er or 
ion -^ ary ; com, re -\- petit -\- ion ; com -\- petit -^ or ov ive j ap 
+ petit (e). 

LEssoiq" XX. 

Plet, found in compounds of pie re^ to fill, 

C^om^ dCy^ in -{-com, re^ -\- plet{e) ; com, in-hcom-{-plet{e} 
-\-ly or 7iess ; com, de, in + com, re -\- plet -\- ion ; ex-{-plet-\- 
ive.^ 

Helps for the Pupil.— Note the force of de and re in * deplete and 
^ replete. ' Expletive, used to fill out. 



from /?^i ca re, pli cd tusj to fold, bend, turn. 

Com, du, multi, sim^ {= se7nel, once) -h plic -i- ity ; ac-\- 
com ■}- plic{e) ; sim, sup -{-pie; sim + pli ■{- fy ; pli -{-ant or 
able or ancy or abil-{-ity or able -{- ness j ply ; ap, com, im, 
mis-\-ap, multif re-{-ply;^ em -{-ploy ;^ em-{-ploy-{-er or 



156 Tlie English Language. 

ment ; de^ploy; dis-{-play ;^ com, du, multi -{- pleoc. 
Ex,^ im^ ^plicit ; ex, im^-plicit + ly or ness. Ap, du, im, 
mishap, multi, re, sup-\-plicat-\-ion ;' com, du, ex, im, 
3up+plicat{e), 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Simplicity, literally, state of being single, 
nncombined, without fold. How does it get its meaning of absence of 
cunning, or of sagacity ? How does duplicity mean cunning, deceit ? 
^ Reply — what is returned in a reply ? ^Employ, to in\^olve, infold, by 
using, occupying. ^ Display, to unfold, as a flag, to show. ^ Explicit^ 
unfolded, and hence distinctly seen ; ® implicit, folded in, the meaning 
only implied, "' Supplication, the leg from the knee down l)ent under 
in kneeling in prayer. 

Pon, Posit, Postur, {pounds post)^ from ponere^ p6s- 
it iis^ to place. 

Post+2^on{e); post+2^on{e) +me7it ; com, de, ex, op^- 
pon + ent ; com, ex, pro ^-%yoiind, De -\- posit ; posit + ion 

or ive'^ or ive + ness or iv + ist; ap, com, dp-{-2yosit{e); ap, 
com, de, de + com, dis, ex, im, inter, juxta, op, pre, p>ro, 
sup, tr ans-Y posit -^ ion ; com, de, ex ^ posits or ; de^r posit 
■\-ory'^ or ary ;^ post ;^ post-\-al or age; com, im-\-post; 
im +post + or ^ or tire. Postur{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Positive, placed, fixed, in opinion. - Depos- 
itory, the place where things are placed; ^depositary, the one with 
whom. "^ Post, a stake fixed in the ground; a military station; a 
position of duty. How a conveyance for letters ? ^Impostor, one 
who imposes upon others, deceives them. 

Port, Port at, from par td re^ por td tus^ to carry, convey, 
bear along. 

Tort ;^ com, de, dis, ex, im, s { = dis), sup, pur, '^ trans -^ 
port; port -\- able or able -\- ness or er or er-\-age or ly or 
li + ness; ex, im, re, sup + port + er or able; im+port-\r 



Word- Building. ' 157 

ant^ or ance ; de-{-port + ment ; de, ex, im, trans -^portat 
-{-ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Port, carriage of the body. ^ Purport, mean- 
ing carried, tenor of. ^ Important, carrying something of weight, or 
importance, within. 

Port, ( porch) f from par ta^ a gate or door. 

Port;^ port + al OT er ov r + ess or ic-{-{o) (It); porch. 
Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Port, opening, as in ^or^-hole. 



Lessoi^ XXI. 

Pos, from Fr. poser ^ to place ; Low Latin, pan sd re, 

JPos{e) (attitude) ; com., de, ex, im, inter, op, pro, pur, 
re, sup, trans -\-pos{e); com-\-pos-\-er or ure or ed + ly or 
ed + ness; pro+pos + al; ex-^pos-{-ure. 

Prim, (prin, pri)^ from pri mus^ first. 

I*rifn{e); ^ prim + er or al or ary or it -hive or ev {mvum, 
age) +al ; prin + cip + le or cip + al or cip -\-al-\-ly or ci^ + 
al + ity or cip + al-h ship; j?>rm^ + c?(e) (c(e) from caper e, to 
take); pri'i% -h c{q^ ^ly or (^(e)+^om or t? + e55; pri -h or 
(ending of the L. comparative) or or-hity or or^.^ 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Prime, first in quality. ^ Prince, the j9rm- 
cipaZ person. ^ Priory, the house presided over by a prior. 

Sacr, (sacrif secrat), from so^ crd re, sa crd tus, to set 
apart as sacred, to dedicate. 

Sacr-hed ov ed + ly or ed+ness; sacr{a)-\-ment or ment 
+ al ; sacri -\-flc + {i)al or fic{e) ; sacri + Z^egr + {i)ous or Zegr 
+ {i)ous 4- Z^/ ^^ ^^S^(e). JSx + ecr( =secr =sacj*) + aSZe; * ex + 



158 The English Language, 

€crat{=secrat)+ion or (e) ; con, de -\- secrat -\- io7i or or 
or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Execrable, worthy of the curse pronounced 
upon things not sacred, unholy. 

Sci, from sci re^ sci tus^ to know. 

Sci + ence or ent{i) -\-fic or ent(i) +fic + al or ent{i) +fic + al 
+ ly J con, pr e -^ sci + ence : ^ co7i-\-sci + ous ov ous + ness j"^ 
con + sci-{-ent-\-{i)ous^ or ent-\-{\)ous + ly or ent ■\- {\)ous -^ 
ness ; onini{Qll) + sci + ent or ence; un -\- con -\- sci + ous or 
ous-i-ness or ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Prescience, a knowing beforehand, fore- 
knowledge. 2 Consciousness, a knowing with one's self. ^ Conscien- 
tious, governed by conscience, behaving by the rules of right. 

Scrib, Script, Scriptur, {scriv^ scrip)^ from scribe re 
scrip tus^ to write. 

Scrib{e) ; a, circum, de, in, pre, pro, suh, super, trails -\- 
scrib{e); sub + scrib -{- er ; scrib+{h)le or {h)l + er; scriv 
-Ven-\-er.'^ Script; con, ^tnanu^ non + de, post, re, tran-h 
script ; a, circum, con, de, in, pre, pro, sui, super, tran 
+ script + ion ; de, pre, pro -\- script + ive ; scrip » Script- 
ur{e)', scriptur-\-al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Scrivener, once, a money lender ; now, one 
who draws contracts and other writings. 

Sent, Sen§, {senti^ sensu)^ from sen ti re^ sen sus, to feel, 
think, perceiye. 

As, con, dis, re + sent; dis -{- sent + er ; s{(i)ent;^ sent 
i-encej^ senti-ent + {i)ous^ or ent + {i)ous + ly y re + sent 
-\-ment or ful;^ senti-hent or ment or ment + al ov ment 
+ aZ 4- ism ; pre + senti + ment. Sens{e) ; sens{e) + less or 



Word-Building. 159 

less + lyj sens-\-iUe or ihl + y or ihil + ity ; non + sens{e); 

non-\-sens-{-ic-\-al ; sensu^al or al-\-ity on ous or ous-\-ly. 

From the derivative adjs. sen sd tus and sensitif, we 

have sensat + ion or ion + al or ion + al + ly ; sensit-\-ive or 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Scent, something perceived by the nose. 
^ Sentence, containing a thought. ^ Sententious, weighty with thought. 
^Resentful, literally, fuU of the feeling toward one which he has 
toward you ; now, full of indignation, anger. 



Lessok XXII. 

^equ^ Secut, (sec, sequi, su^ sect^ suit)^ from se qui^ se CU' 
tuSf to follow. 

Sequ-\-el or ent or ence ; con -{- sequ + ent or ence or ent + 
ly ; sub -\- sequ -{- ent or ent-\-ly; sec + ond^ {=:nnd, the ge- 
rundive suf!ix=the pres. part.) or ond + ary or ond^ari + ly 
or ond-\-ly ; ob -\- seqtii + es or ous^ or ous-\-ly ; su{e) ; e7i, 
pur + sii{e) ; pur + sii + ant or a^(:6 or er. Per, pro-hseciit 
■i-ion or or or (e) ; con-{-secut + io7i or i^e or ive + ly ; ex 
-^ecut {—secttt)+ion or iV^ or ion + er or or or r + ie^c; 
sect ;^ sect -Vary or ari-{-an or ari-\-an + ism; suit; suit 
^ahle" OY aile-Vness or or or (e) ;" pur -{- suit. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Second, next after first, called second be- 
cause it follows the first. ^ Obsequious, submissively following the 
will of another. ^ Sect, followers of some one. "^Suitable, follows 
the style of, adapted to. ^ /SmYe of rooms ; a train of followers. 

Sol, {soli)f from so ^tes, alone. 

5^oZ(e); sol{e) + ly ; sol+{o) (It.); soli + loqu-j-y or loqu 
+ ize ; soli-\-tude. 
From sol it as come solit-\-ary or ari-\-ly. Prom the 



160 The English Language, 

derivative des o Id re, des o Id tus, we have de + solat{e) -f ly 
or ness ; de-\-solat-\-%on or (e). 

Spec, or Spic, Spect, (spici^ specif spy^ spi), from spec 
(or splc)e re J spec tus^ to look at. 

All {^^ av, from avis, bird) + siyic -i-es ;^ de + spic + able ^ 
or ail + ^ ; spic{Q) ; ^ su-\- spic + ^o;^ ; * sic, au, in + au -h 
sjnci -i- ous '° or ous + ly; sjyeci + al or on^ ^ or al^ty or 
65^ or (e);^ e^speci + al; sx>eci + men ; spy; e^spy ; 
e + spi + a? or on + ^^6. J , circum, pro, re, retro, su + sxyect ; 
circum, intro, retro + sped -\- io7i ; intro, pro, re, retro ■\- 
sped + ive ; re + sped + aile ^ or ail + y ov aiil + ity or /^^ 
or/i^Z + Zy. 

From the derivatives con spic ii us, per spic u ^is, we get 
C071, per + spicu + ous or otis-t-ly or ous-^ness ; per-\-spicu 
4- i^y. Erom the frequentative spec td re, spec td tus, we 
get speda + cle ( = cule) or cfo + 5 ; sped at -{-or ; ex ^ped 
( riz speci) ; ex + j^^ecf + ant ; ex ^pedat + ^ 07^ ; m + sped ; 
in -^ sped -^ ion or or or or -{-ship. From the derivative 
spec ifi cd re, spec ifi cd tus, we get speci -{-fie or fy or fie -|- 
al or fic-{-al-^ly or ficat^ion. From speculdri, spec- 
u Id tus, to explore^ watch^ we get specxilat + ^o?^ or ^Ve or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Auspices, once, omen from the flight of 
hirds ; "under the auspices of=under the patronage of . '^Despicable, 
deservedly looked down upon. ^ Spice, ^ species, ^ specie — things of a 
hind, or class, have generally like visible forms, hence, on the authority 
of G. P. Marsh, species came to mean kind, class; among the kinds or 
classes of Eastern merchandise were drugs and condiments, hence these 
were called spices ; species is the visible form in distinction from that 
which represents it, hence specie was taken to name gold and silver 
when paper money appeared as their representative. * Suspicion, a 
looking askance at, or with mistrust. ^Auspicious, the omen favorable. 
^Specious, appearing well, plausible, but the appearance deceptive. 
^ Respectable, literally, worth looking at again. 



Word-Building. 1 61 



Lessok XXIII. 

ISpir, Spirat^ {spirit^ spright^ sprit) ^ from spirdre^ spU 
rd tuSf to breathe. 

A, con, in, per, re, re-\-in, tran + spir(e) ; exi-pir 
{=ispir){e);^ a + spir + ant."^ A, in, per, re, tran + spirat 
-{-ion J spirit; spirit -i- less or ed or ed + ly or ed + ness; 
spright; spright + ly or ful; sprit{e). 

From the derivative spir it u dlis, we have spiritu + al 
or al + ly or al-\-ize or al-\-ity or al-\-ism or al-^ist or ous. 

Helps for the Pupil. — i Expire, to hreathe out, die. '^Aspirant, he 
^ho pants for something. 

Stru, Struct, Structur, (stroy)^ from sfrif e re^ strdc tus^ 
to make, build, arrange. 

Con,^ mis ^ + con + stru{e) ; in + stru + ment^ or ment + al 
or ment + al + ly or ment + al + ist or ment + al-{-ity ; de-\- 
stroy;* de + strop + er. Con, in, oI?-\- struct; con, de, in, 
ol -\- struct -\- ion or ive or ive + ly ; con, in -\- struct -{-or* 
Structur{e) ; super -{- structur{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Construe, to set in order, to translate ; 
^ misconstrue, to se^ amiss, to misunderstand or misrepresent. ^ J^- 
strument, a machine for making something. * Destroy, to unbuild, 
pull down. 

Sum, Sumpt, {sumptu)^ from sumere {sub + em ere), 
sump tus, to arrogate, to take up, to spend. 

As, con, pre, re + sum.{e) ; as, con, pre, re, un + as-{-sum. 
-{-ing ; con, in -{-con, pre, re -\- sum -\- able; con-{'Sum.-{-er. 
As, con, pre, re -{-sum.pt -{-ion or ive; sumptu-^ous^ or 
ous + ly or ary ; pre + sumptu + ous ^ or ous + Zy. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Sumptuous, expensive, luxurious. ^ Pre- 
sumptuous, taking liberties unduly, rashly. 



162 The English Language, 

Tang^, Tactj (ting^ tag^tigu^ tain, teg^ tegr^ tactu^ tast), 
fi'om tan ge re^ tdc tus, to touch, to reach, to handle. 

Tmig-\-ent or ency or ihle or ihl-^y or ibil-\-ity or ent^- 
{i)al ; con + ting + ent ^ or ent + ly or 6/^(?y ; con 4- ^agr + ion ^ 
or (i)o^5 or {i)ous + ness ; con + tigu-hotis^ or ous + ly or 
ous + ness or ity J at + tain; at -{- tain -h able ^ or able + ness 
or 7?^6?^^ ; m + f 6gr + 6r ; ^ '^*?z + ^egrr + al or tV^/. ^ Tact ; ' tact 
+ He J con, in + tact ; tactu + «Z ; tast{e) ; ® tast{e) + fo^s or 
7^55 + ness ; tast{e) -{-ful ^ or ful + Zy or ful-{- ness. 

From the derivative in te grd re, in te grd tus, come in -h 
tegr-\-ant ; in-^tegrat-^ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Contingent, touching, resting upon, and so 
dependent. ^ Contagion, transmission of disease by touch or contact, 
^ Contiguous, touching. ^Attainable, reachable, ^Integer, untouched, 
T^hole. ® Integrity, character untouched, sound. "^ Tact, skill in touch- 
ing, in handling. ^ Taste, literally, to touch with tongue or palate, 
^ Tasteful, agreeable to our taste (metaphorical ?) for the beautiful. 



Lesso:n^ XXIV. 

To the Teacher. — The pupil, made familiar by this work with the 
roots, prefixes, and suflSxes used in these lessons, can never go far 
^astray in his use of the many English words which they form. Such 
an acquaintance with these words as shall enable him to employ them 
intelligently and correctly is an attainment to be coveted, one worth 
■all the labor and pains it costs him and you. We know no better road 
to it than that which, under your direction, he is following. 

Un, Unit, {uni\ from u ni re^ ti ni tiis^ to join, make one ; 
ti nus^ one. 

Un + ion or anim-hous or aniin-\-ity ; dis, re + itn-{- 
ion; tri-{'Un{e);^ un + ique; nni-^corn {cor me, horn) or 
son {sonus, sounds, harmony) or voc (see root below) + al or 
"vers (vertere, to turn) 4- al or vers + al + ity or vers (e) or 



Word-Building. 163 

form or for7n'\-ity or/i/. Unit (one) ; unit + y^ or ari-f 
an or (e) ; dis, re + iinit{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Triune, three in one, ^ Unity, oneness. 

Ut, Us, Usur, {usu)f from u ti^ H sus, to use. 

Ut + ens {=ent) + il ; ut-{-il-\-ity or il + ize or il+iz + at 
+ion or il + it + ari-\- an. Us + able or age; per-\-us-\-al ; 
ab-\-us-\-ive or ive + ly ; us{e) ; a5/ t?^s, mis, per-{-us{e) ; 
us{e)+ful or ful + ly or Zess or less-hly j usu + al or aZ 
+ Z^/. I7sitr + 2/ ^ or ^r or ^ + ows. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Abuse, to 'wse wrongly, ^ Usury, now, un- 
lawful charge for the use of money. 

Tid, Vis, (vey^ vic^ view)^ from vi de re^ vi sus^ to see. 

U, pro + vid + ^^^ or ent + Z^ or ence ; pro + i^icZ + ent + {i)al 
or ent + {i)al + ly J pru{=pro) + d{=vid)-\-ent^ or ence or 
ent + ly ; pur, sur-\-vej/ ; pur + vey + or or ance ; sur^vey 
+ or or or -\- ship. Vis -\- age '^ or i'o?^ or ion-\-ary or ^5fe or 
ill-^y or or ; ac?, r^, super + vis{e) ; ad + vis + able ^ or aSZe 
+ ^655 or ed + ness or er ; pro, re, super + vis + ion j ad-h 
vic{e); view;"^ vieiv -{- er or less j re + view ; re + view-{-er. 

From the derivative vis i td re, vis i td tus, we get visit / 
visit + or ^ or ant ; visitat + ion ; re + visit ; re + visitat -f 
ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Prudent, foreseeing and wise in the use of 
means. ^ Visage, the face, the ?^o^. ^ Advisable, seen to be the 5es^ 
to do. ^ View, that see/i. ^ Visitor, one who goes to see. 

Tiv, {vi)f from t^i^ e re^ vie tus^ to live. 

Viv + id or acious or ac + ity ; re, sur-\-viv(G) ; re + viv 
+al or al + ist; sur + viv + al or or; t;* + ^^^+s;^ co?2-f 
i?it? + (i)t^Z or (i)aZ + i^2/. 



164 The English Langitage, 

rrom the derivatives vi td lis and vie tu d lis, we get vit 
-{■al or al-^s or al + ly or al + ity ; victu + al + s. From the 
derivative viv ifi cd re, viv ifi cd tus, we get vivi ^fy ; 
vivi -{-ficat + ion ; re + vivi -\-fy ; re + vivi -^ficat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Viands, things to live on ; now, only food, 

V0C5 {voiCf vow)^ from vooo^ voc is^ voice. 

Voc + al or al + ist or a? + ize or aZ + {;^ + at + ^o^^ ; equi^ 
u7ii-\-voc-\-al ; voic{e) ; voic{e)+less ; voiv-\-eh 

From the derivative verb vo cd re, vo ed his, to call^ we get 
voca-\-'ble^ or bul-\-ary ;'^ vocat + ion^ or ive ; vouch ^ 
vouch + er ; re, ir-\-re-{-voc-]-ahle or ail+y ; con, e, in, 
pro, re + vok{e) ; ^ a, con, eqtii, in, pro, re + vocat + ion; 
ad + voca + cy ; ad, eqiii + vocat{e) . Prom vo cif e rd re, 
vo cif erdtus, we get voci+fer + ous or ous + lyj voci-^- 
ferat + ion or (e)/ 

Helps for the Pupil. — * YocaUe, a name, a word. ^ Vocabulary, a 

Z^s^, or collection, of vocables. ^Vocation, calling, profession. ^ Avo- 
cation, a calling away, or a diversion, from one's vocation, ^Vocif- 
erate, to speaA; loudly. 



GREEK ROOTS. 
Lessq]^ XXY. 

Orapli, from grdphein, to write. 

Graph -vie or ic -Vainly or tY(?; flj?/^o [autos, one^s own), 
ZiYAo {lithos, Btone) , photo {phos, photos, light)^ tele (at a 
distance) + srrai>7^ ; 6to {bios, lite), geo (ge, earth), litho, 
ortho {orthos, correct), photo, steno {stenos, narrow), tele, 
topo {topos, place), typo {tupos, tjipe) + graph + y ; historio 



Word-Building. 165 

(history), lexico (lexicon), topo, typo + graph + er ; tele-h 
graph + io or ist or er; typo + graph + ic or ic + ah 

Log, L«og^u, from logos^ a word, speech, science, reason. 

Log-^-ic or ic + al or ic-^-al + ly or ic + ian ; Zogr + arithms 
{arithmos, number) ; (^?^^, apo^ bio, chrono (cJironos, time), 
concho {conche, shell), doxo {doxa, praise), entomo {entoma, 
insects), etymo {etymon, source), eu, genea {genos, birth), 
geo, mytho {micthoSy fable), ornitho {ornis, ornitlios, bird), 
patho {pathos, suffering), phreno {phren, mind), phraseo, 
{phrasis, diction), physio {phusis, nature), ^/n7o {philos, 
loved), psycho, {psuche, soul), tauto (the same), techno 
{techne, art), theo {theos, God), toxico {toxicon, poison), zoo 
{zoon, animal) +^ogr + 2/; ana, Mo, chrono, etymo, genea, geo, 
mythOy ornitho, patho, phreno, physio, philo, psycho, tauto, 
theo, zoo + log-hic + al or ic + al + lyj log{o)-\-msich.-{-y 
(strife) ; syl + log-}-ism ; ana, apo, cata, deca (ten), dia, ecy 
epi, mono, pro-\-logu{(d). 

Meter, Metr, from metron^ measure. 

Meter ; anemo {anemos, wind), haro (haros, weight), dia, 
gaso (gas), hexa {hex, six), hydro {hudor, water), penta 
{&yq), peri, thermo {thermos, heat)+i^6fer; metr + ic or io 
+ al; geo, sym, trigono {tri+gonia, angle) +iiiefr + 2/- 

Pttil, Pliilo, from philos^ a friend or a lover. 

JPhil + anthrop {anthropos, man) + 3/ or anthrop + ist ; phil 
+ adelph {adelphos, brother) + ^a^^ or adelph + (ia); phil-{- 
harmon {harmonia, harmony) +icy philo -\- log -\-y or log 

-j-ist ; philo + soiph {sophia, wisdom) +er or soph-f-«/ or 
soph -I- ic or soph + ic H- al or soph + ize. 



166 The English Language, 



ADDITIOjS^AL LATm EOOTS.* 

Lessors" XXVI. 

Cern, Cret, {ere), from cernere, cretus^ to see, to sift, to 
distinguish, to separate. 

Con, dis + cern; dis -h cern -{■ er or ihle or ment ; de-h 
€re{e); se-hcre-\-cy. Dis, in -{- dis -\- cre{e)t ; se + cret;'" se 
+ cret 4- ly or ive or ary j ^ ex, se + ci^et -\- ion j^ se + cret + ive 
or (e) ; dis + cret + ion or ion + al or ion-}-al + ly. 

From the derivative cer tus, we have cert + ain^ or ain-\' 
ly or ain + ty. From cer tifi cd re, cer tifi cd tus, we have 
eerti-\-fy ; certi -\- ficat + ion ov jflcat{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Secret^ separated and hidden. ^ Secretary , 
originally a private clerk, one intrusted with secrets. ^ Secretion, the 
act of secreting, that separated from the blood and made into new sub- 
stances. * Certain, used when one has sifted the matter thoroughly. 

Clam, Clamat, {claim), from da una re, cla ma tus, to call, 
to cry out. 

Clam + or ^ or or + ous or or-\-ous + ness; claim ;^ claim 

-{-ant; un, un -\- re -\- claim + ed; re + claim + aile ; ac, de^ 
dis, ex, pro, re -{• claim ; de, dis, ex, pro -\- claim + er ; ac, 
de, ex, pro -\- clamat -{- ion ; de, ex -{• clamat -{■ ory , 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Clamor, a noisy cry. - Claim, to demand as 

a right. 

Clauj^, (clos), (Clud, €lus, in compounds), from claddere, 
claiisus, to shut. 

Claus{e),^ Con, ex, in, pre, se-\-clitd{e). Iie + clus{e) ; 
* These are not in the Regents' List. 



Word-Building. 167 

con, ex, in, se + clus + ion or ive; in + con + clus -\- ive ; 
clos-\-ure or et ; clos{e) ;^ clos{e)-^li/ or ness ; en, in + clo» 
■\-ure or (e). 
From the derivative claus trum, we get cloist-\-er, cloist 

-her-hed, cloist + er + al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Clause, a portion of the sentence shut off" 
from the rest, by itself. ^ Close, to shut to. 

Fleet, Flex, Flexur, from flee te rCf/leao us^ to bend. 

Be, in, re + fleet; de, in, re + fleet + io7i /^ re+fleet + or 
or ive or ive + ness, Fleoc + He or ion or or or ible or i5t7 
•\-ity ; circum, re-^fledc; in, re-^-fleoc + ible or ibil-\-ity. 
Flexur (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — Reflection, the turning (metaphorical ?) of the 
mind back upon itself. 

Flu, Flux, from flUe re fflucc us f to flow. 

Flu{e) ; ^ flu + enf ^ or 6^cy or id or id + ity j af, con, ef, 
melli {mel, lionej)'\-flu + ent or ence; in+flu + ence^ or e^f 
4-(i)aZ; super + flu -hous^ or ous + ly or ii^y. Fluoc; con, 
ef, in, re-\-fluoc ; fluoc + ion; de+fluoc + io7i. 

From the derivative ^^^c ^^^ i r^^ flue tu a tus, we have 
fluetuat -{■ ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Flue, a passage for the smoke to flow 
through. ^ Fluent, flowing ; applied to a speaker, is it metaphorical ? 
^ Influence, a power conceived as flowing from a person or thing and 
affecting another. "* Superfluous, overflowing. 

Oreg, (gregi)^ from greoc^ gre gis, flock. 

Greg + «W + o«^6' ^ or «r^ + o^^5 + ly or an + ous + 7ze55 ; e + 
gregi + o«^5 ^ or 0i^5 + ly or 02^s + ness* 

From gregd re, gregd tus, to collect into a flock, we have 



168 The English Language, 

ag, se-{-gregat-hion or (e) ; con + gregat + ion or ion -{-at 
or ion + al-{-ist or ion^al-\-ism or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Gregarious^ associating in flocks or herds. 
^ Egregious, out of, or above, the flock, or the common. 



Lessok XXVII. 

Hab, Habit, {ab^ hahitu^ hibit)^ from hab^re^ habitus^ 
to hare, hold, keep. 

Ah{—hab)-\-le^ or l-\-y ; en, dis-j-ab{=7iab) + le ; hah 
-\-iI{i)+ment.^ Habit ;^ habit -{-ude ; habitn + al or al-{- 
ly or ate ; ex, in, pro + Mbit ; ex, in, pro + hibit-\-ion ; ex 
+ Jiibit + or or org or ion + er ; pro + Jiibit + ive or org ; 
de-^-bt" {—hibit) ; de + bt-^-or. 

From ha Ml i tas, ha Ml i td tis, we get a{=ha)bilit + y ; 
de + bilit[ = habilit) -{-y ; de + bilitat{= habilitat) + ion or 
(e). From the frequentative hab i td re, hah i td tus, to 
dwells we get hahita + ile or bl + y or ble-i-ness; habitat; 
habitat + ion; co, in + habit; in -{- habit + ant or able; co 
+ habitat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Able, having power. - Habiliment, the hav- 
ing, called dress, ^ Habit, the having, called custom, called dress also. 
* Debt, that due another, had away from him that owes. 

Her, Hes, from hcer e re^ hcesus^ to stick* 

Ad, CO, in-{-her{e) ; ad, co, in + her-\-ent or ence or ency. 
Ad, co-\- hes + ion or ive or ive 4- ness. 

From the frequentative hces i td re, hces i td tus, we have 
hesit+ancy ;^ hesitat-^ion or (e) ; un-\-hesitat'\-ing or 
ing + ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Hesitancy, the sticking fast in doubt. 



Word-Building, 169 

I¥ect, ;Nex, from nee te re^ neoc us^ to bind or tie. 

Con J dis + con + nect; con + nect + ion or ive or ed or ed 
4- ly J dis + con + nect + ion or 6^ or ed + ly. An-{- neoc ; con 
-f nedc + ^o^^; a^ + nedc + a^^ + io/^ or a# + ion + i^^. 

JScan, Seans, (Scend, ISeens, {scent) , in compounds), from 
scan de re^ scan sus, to climb, to pass. 

Scan. Scans + ion,^ A, de, con + de, tran-hscend; a, 
de + scend + ctnt ; a + scend + e7icy ; tran + scend + ^^^ or 
ent-Val or ent-\-al-\-ism. A, con-\-de, de + scens + ion j a, 
de + scent. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Scansion, reading of poetry so as to mark 
the feet. 

iSed, Ses§5 {see^ sid^ sidu^ siz), from se dere, ses sus, to sit. 

Sed-\-ent-\-ary or ent-\-ari-\-ness; sed(\) ■\-ment ^ or ment 
+ary ; super + sed{e); see;"^ j)re, re, sul? + sid{e); pre,re-\- 
sid + ent; i7i + sid + {i)oics or {i)ous-{-ness ; sub-{-sid-^{i) 
ury ; as + sidu + ous^ or ity ; re + sidu{e) ; re-hsidii + ary. 
Sess + ion ov ion-hal ; as, {^o^), pre-{-{^os)-\'Sess; (pos) + 
sess + ion or ive or or; as-hsess + ment or orj^ as-{-siz{e).^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Sediment, that which has settled to the bot- 
tom ; sits there, as it were. ^ See, the seat, or jurisdiction, of a bishop. 
^Assiduous, sitting intent upon, attentive. ^Assessor, originally, one 
who sat beside the judge. ^ Assize, a sitting, or session, of the court. 

LEssoisr XXVIII. 

SerTj Servit, (servi^ serf)^ from ser t^l re, ser vi tus^ to serve, 
be a slave to. 

Sert^(e) ; serv + ant or ^r or ice or ice + able or i?e or ^7+ 
tVy or ile + ly ; de + serv + ing or ing + ly or 6^ or ed-hly or 
(e) ; ^i5^ 5^^5 + ser^?(e) ; 5«^& + S6ri;i + e^# or ent-i-ly or 
c/^ce; ser// serf+dom. Servit + or ov ude. 



170 The English Language. 

Sig^n, from sig num^ a sign. 

Sign ; sign + al or al + ize or al + ly or ^^. 

From the derivative sig nd re, sig nd Ucs, to set a mark, or 
seal^ we have as, con, counter, de, re i- sign; re + sign + ed 
or ed 4- ly ; de + sign + er or 6t/ or ed + Zf/ ; as, con + s«gr*«' + 
7ne7it or er oree; un + de, under + sign + ed ; as, de, rei- 
signat -f ion ; signatiir{e). From sig nif i cd re, sig nifi^ 
cd tus, we get signi-\-fy or fie ■\- ant or fic-\-ance or flcat-\- 
ion ; in + signi +fic + ant or fie + «^ce. 

Ten, Tent, (tin^ tinu^ tain)^ from te ne re^ ten tus^ to hold* 

Ten + alle or acious or ac + ity ov aiit or a7it + ry or (e) 
ment or et ;^ un + ten + able or ant + ed; ten + ure; lieu-h 
ten + ant or ancy ; coun, tnain^ sus + ten + ance ; abs, con, 
in + con, per, im +per + tin + ent or e;^ce ; con + fmtf + al or 
al + ly or «^yzce or ^Y?/; co?^^ re + tinu{e) ; aJs^ ap+per, con, 
de, enter, rnain^ oi, per, re, sus + tain. Con, dis-\-con-\- 
tent ; con -{• tent -\-ment or s; dis + con + tent + ment or ed* 
Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Tenet, a doctrine held to. 

Tribut, from trib it e re, tri hH tus^ to give. 

Tribut{e) ; tribut + ary ; at, C07i, dis, re + dis + tribut{e) ; 
at, con, dis, re, re ■\- dis -\- tribute ion ; at, con, dis -\- tribut 
+ aile or ive ; re + tribut + ive. 

Vine, Vict, {vinei)^ from vin ee re, vie tus^ to conquer. 

Con, e, pro + vine{e) ;^ in + vine + iile or ibil + ity or iJZ 
+ y; pron-vinei + aV or al + ism. Con, e + viet : con, e + 
Viet + ion ; viet + or or or-f?/ or or + (i)ow5. 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Province, a conquered territory, a district or 
department. ^ Provincial, pertaining to a province, hence not national 
or cosmopolitan ; a term of reproach. 



Word-Building. 171 



LATIN EOOTS. 
Lesso^^ XXIX. 

To the Teacher. — After so many suggestions from iis, in the les- 
sons under '* Elementary English," the teacher may be grateful that 
we are to offer him no more. But, if allowed, we would emphasize 
those already made — especially that one relating to the metaphorical 
use of words. The Helps for the Pupil will be continued, but will 
become more meager as w^e see that the pupil is outgrowing the need 
of them. 

We give the Latin roots and then the Greek, and follow both with 
the Anglo-Saxon — the Roots Additional. 

Aper, Apertur, from ap e ri re, a per tus, to open. 

Aper{\) + ent, Apertur{Q). 

Art, (arti, ert), from ar.s, dr Us, skill, art, method. 

Art; art-\-fuV or ful + ly or ful -\- ness or less or less-\-ly 

or less + ness or ist or ist-^ic or ist-hic + al or ist-[-ic + al + 
ly or (is) (Fr,)^an;'^ arti-^fic-\-{\)aV or flc-\-(i)al + ly or 
fic-\-{\)al-\-ity or fic-^er or j^c(e) ; insert ; in-\-ert-\-ly or 
ness or (ia) (L.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Artful, full of crafty skill, tricky. - Artisan 
—make a fine distinction between artist and artisan. ^ Artificial y 
opposed to natural. 

Aud, Audit, {audi, edi, ey, eis)^ from an dire, auditus, 
to hear. 

And -f iUe or ibl + y or iUe -h ness ; in + aud 4- ihle or iU H- 
y or il)il + ity ; audi + ence ; dis + ob, ob + edi + ent or ent -}- 



172 Tlie English Language. 

ly or e7ice ; dis + oi^ oi + ey;^ oi^-eis-\-ance. Audit ;^ 
uudit + or or OT-\-sliip or ory or or?' 4-(um) (L.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — i Disohey, one may comply, or refuse to com- 
ply, with the command heard, ^ Audit, a hearing, and so an examiria' 
Hon, of accounts. 

Aur, {atiri^ ori)^ from ^if rum^ gold. 

^i^r + ^'c; aur{e)-\-ate or oZ(e)' (diminutive); auri-^-fer 

■\-ous ;'^ oW + ^P (diminutive); oH + o/(e)/ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Aureole, a golden halo. - Auriferous, gold- 
hear ing, ^ Oriel, a recess, or window, gilded with ^o/tZ. ^ Oriole — what 
is the bird's coZor ? 

Bat, from &af e re^ popular form of ba tu e re^ to fight, to 
beat. 

Bat{e) ; a, de, re-{-bat{e) ; a, re + bat{e)+ment ; bat-^- 
{i)le or {t)er or {i)er-\-y or {t)al + ion ; com-\-bat; co7n + bat 
+ a?it or I t'e or i're + ness. 



Can, Cant, {cent)^ from can e re^ can tus^ to sing. 

Can + or + oz/^ or o?^ + oiis + ^^^^^ ; <^c + cent.^ 
From the frequentative can td re, can td tus, we have 
cant ;^ cant-{-{\)cle or (o) (It.) ; des, re -^ cant ; re + cantat 
+ 10)1 J ^ 2jre + cent + or ; chant; chant -\-er or ry or {i)cleer 
{clair, clear) ; en 4- chant ; en + chant + er or r + ess or ment,^ 
From the derivative ac cen tu a re, ac cen tu d tuSy come ac 
-\- centu -\- al ; ac + centiiat-\-ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Accent, the to?ie, pitch, stress of the voice. 
^ Cant, affected, hypocritical goodness uttering itself in a sing-song 
to7ie. ^Recantation, the charm reversed, a declaration retracting a 
former one. ^ Enchantment, songs of sorcery. 



Word-Building. 173 



Lesso:n' XXX. 

Capit^ {cipit^ cipic^ capt, chatty catt)^ from cd put^ cap it is^ 
the head. 

Capit-\-aV or al-\-ist or al-{-ize or (ol) ; ^ li, oc + cipit-{- 
al ; vre + cipit + ous or ous-\-ly ; pre + cipic{e) ; capt + ain 
or ain + c^y ; chatt -\-el-{-s^ or ^Z + ism ; catt + Ze. * 

From the derivative capitulum come capit -]- ul -{- ar or 
id^ary ; chapt + er. Prom, the dim. cap i tell um comes 
ehapit + er. Prom the verb capit uld re, capit uldtus, 
derived from the diminutive capitulum, come capitulate 
ion ^ or (e) ; re e_capitulat -\- ion or (e).^ Prom the deriva- 
tives (ie (?a^ i td re, de cap i td tits, and prm cip i td re, prm- 
cip i td tus, come de -^ capitat -[- ion or (e) ; pre-\-cipit + ant 
or a7icy ; "pre + cipitat 4- ion ^ or (e) . ® 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Capital— loss of Aea^i, or life, when used 
with crime or punishment ;=the city which is the seat of government, 
the head of the state;— money invested, in distinction from the income 
derived from it. ^ Capitol ^ from Capit olinus, the hill on which the 
temple of Jupiter at Rome w^as built. ^ Chattels, investments of almost 
any kind, personal or real. * Cattle, investments in live stock, chiefly 
bovine. ^ Capitulation, surrender, the te7'ms of which are 7ioted down 
as little heads or headings. ^Recapitulate, to go over the points of a 
discourse again. ''Precipitation, headlong haste. ^Precipitate, to 
throw headfirst. 

Celer, from c6 ler^ quick. 

Celer + ity. 

Prom the derivative ac eel e rd re, ac eel e rd tus, to has- 
ten^ come ac-\-celerat-\-ion or ive or ed or ing or (e). 

Commod, see Hod below. 



174 The English Language^ 

Coiumun, see iHun^ first list. 

Coron, {croivn^ corol), from co ro na^ a croTTn. 

Coron -\- al oil et ; crown; crown + less ; cor ol-\- J {diim,) 
+ (a) or l-\-ary^ 

From the derivative cor o nd re, cor o nd tiis^ to crown, 
come coro^i + er y ^ coronat + io?i. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Corollary, something given beyond what is 
due, as a garland; hence something additional, as an inference. 
2 Coroner, officer appointed by the crown. 

Corpu§, Corpor, {corps ^ cors^ cor pit) ^ from c&rjyus, cor-' 
po riSf body. 

Corpus + cle or cid + ar ; corps{e) ; cors + Iet or et ; cor- 
pu + lent or lent + ly oy lence or lenc-Yij. Corpor + aV or 
al-\-ly or ctl+ity. 

From the derivative adj. cor j^o re its, and verb corpora- 
re, cor po rd tus, come corjyore + al or al + ly or al + ity or 
ity ; in + corpore -f al ; corporal + ion ^ or (e) ; in + cor-^ 
porat + ion or (e) ; corporat{Q) + ly, 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Corporal, a non-commissioned officer some- 
times in charge of a small body of men. - Corporations consist each 
of two or xnoYQ persons, or bodies, united for some purpose. 

Cred, Credit, {cre)^ from credere, creditus, to believe^ 
trust to. 

Cred + ence or ent or ent + (i)al-\-s^ ov ible or ibl + y or 
ib il + ity or ible + 7iess ; ere (e) d ; mis + ere ^ant.^ Credit ; 
credit + or ^ or cible or abl + y or cible + ness ; ac, dis + credit ; 
dis -f credit + aS/e. 

From the derivative adj. credulns, we have cred^-ul^- 
ous or ul + ons + ly or ul + ous -j- ness or icl + ity; in + cred-\-' 
ul-\-ous or td + ous-\-ly or id + ity. 



Word-Building. 175 

- Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Credentials, proofs that one is entitled to 
credit, ^ Miscreant, misbelieving ; hence, in the eyes of believers, vile. 
^ Creditor, the one trusted. 

]>at, from da re^ da tus^ to giye, do, place, put, yield, 

l>«f(e);^ dat + ive^ or (um) or (a) (both L.) ; ante, mis, 
post-{-dat{e). 

From the combinations of this verb with prepositions we 
get abs-\-con + d;^ ad + d; ad -{- d -t- end -h (um) or (a) (both 
L.) ; ad -\- dit + ion or io)i-i-al or ive ; e + dit;^ e + dit-\-ion 
or or or or-\-(i)al or or-{-{\)al + ly or or-Vsliip; extra,^ 
per, red, ren, tra-{-dit + ion ;^ tra -{- dit -\- ion -{• al or ion-h 
ary ; reni^ — re),sur^ren\-d-\-er; re;^ -f cZ + (ez) + (vous) ; ^ 
re + con + dit{e) ; tra + it + or. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Date, the give7i point of time. ^ Dative, the 
case used to express that to or for which something is done, ^ Abscond, 
to place one's self in hiding. ^ Edit, to give forth. ^ Extradition, the 
giving up, by one State to another, of an alleged criminal. ^ Tradi- 
tion, the giving, or handing down, across periods of time. ^ Rendez- 
vous, report or deliver yourself ; then the place at which this is to be 
done. 

Lessok XXXI. 

Dent, {dentin dan)^ from dens^ den tis^ tooth. 

Dent-hal or ^5^ or ist + ry or at + ed j tri + dent;'denti-{- 
fric{e) {fricare, to rub) ; dan + de + lion.^ 

From the derivatiye de7i ti tns, the p. p. of den ti re, we 
have dentit + ion. 

From the derivative i7i deii, td re, in den td tns, to notch, 
we have in + dent ; in + dent + ure ; '^ in + dent at + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Dandelion, the flower so named from its 
jagged leaves, whose edges look like rows of lion's teeth. ^ Indenture — 



176 The English Language, 

duplicates of contracts once had their edges notclied so that they would ^ 
tally with each other ; the writings, so notched, were called indent 
tures. 

Di, from di es^ a day, 

Di + al or ary or ar-\-ist ; fneri{ = ')nedi) +€li + a7i or 
on + al or o/i-hal + ly ; a?ite + nierl + di + a)i ; post 4- meri + 
di + an; quoti{quotus, how many ?) + c^i + a/^.^ 

From di ur nd lis we get diuni + al ; journ-\-aV or al-\- 
ism or al-\-ist or al + ist i-ic or eyj^ ad+Joiim; ad-h 
Journ + ?nent ; so +journ ; so -{-joiu^n + er. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Quotidian, on hoivever many a day, on a/iy 
cZa;?/, daily. ^ Journal, once a (ZaiY^/ newspaper, as ^journey was a clay's 
^rat'eZ ; meaning of both extended now. 

Domin^ from dom i nus^ lord ; dom i na^ lady. 

I>o7nifi -\- ion or ic-^al or (o) or (e) (both Sp.) ; cZoti (Sp.) 
= dan (in Chaucer, etc. ) ; domain ; dam{Q) ; dam ; 
ma{m.j) -{- da}n ; da7n + s{=:c)el; donn{2^) (Sp.) ; duenn{2i) 
(Sp.). 

From the derivative dom i nd ri, dom i nd tus, we get 
domin + a?it or eer ; dominate ion or ive or (e) ; pre-\- 
domin + ant or a^ce ; pre + dominat{e), 

I>orin, I>orinit, from dor 7ni re, dor mi ttis^ to sleep. 

Dorm -\- ant or ancy or ^r. Dormit-^ive or or^/. 

Fac, {faciffici), from /a ci es^ a face or surface. 

Fac{Q) ] fac-\-et; de, ef, stt7^+fac{e) ; faci + al; super 
-\-fici+{es) (L.) or aP or al + ly or al + ity. 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Superficial, keeping to the surface, not 
profound. 



Word' Building, 177 

Felic, from fe lix^ fe li cis^ happy. 

Felic + ity or it + ous or it -\- oiis -\- ly or it + ous + ness ; 
in+felic + ity or it + otcs or it + ous + ly. 

From fe lie i id tus, p.p. of fe lie i td re, we get felicitat 
'\-ion or (e). 

Fe§§, from fa t6 ri, fes sus^ to own, acknowledge, manifest^ 
show forth. 

Con, pro -{-f ess; eon-\-fess-\-or^ or ion or ion + al or ed 
or ed+ly ; pro+fess + or^ or or-{-{i)al or or-}- ship or ion or 
ioTi + aZ or io7i -\-al + ly or e^Z or ed + Z^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Confessor, not the o/ie confessing, but Ae ^o 
whom confession is made. ^ Professor, one who openly teaches, or shows 
forth, a science, or branch of learning. 

Lesso:^^ XXXII. 

Form, from for fna^ figure, shape, appearance. 

Form; form-\-al or al + ly or al + isin^ or al+ity or ^? 
(diin.) + (a) (L.) or iil-^ary or uli-at + ion or td-hate; de 
+form + ed or iYy; i7i-\-forni + al or al + ly or al + ity; 
uni +form ; ttni -{-form -\- ity. 

From /or m<i ^2^5^ the p.p. of the derivative /or 7nd re, we 
have for^nat + ^o/z^ or fz^e. From the combinations of for- 
nfiare with prepositions^ we have eon, in, re, trans + form ; 
con -\- form, -^-aile or atl-\-y or ist or i%; con, in,^ re, trans 
+for7Yiat -f ion ; in, re ^form + er ; in -{-form + a7it ; re 4- 
format-{-ive or or^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — '^Formalism, the strict adherence to forms 
and ceremonies. ^ Information, knowledge received, and regarded as 
giving vitality and form to the recipient. 



178 The English Language, 

Fort, {forti^ forc)^ from for tis^ strong, powerful. 

Fort; /orf + r + (ess) (Fr.) ; forti+fij or ficat + ion or 
hide; forc{e); forc{e)-hful or ful^-ly or less or ible or 
iil-\-y or ihle + ness; en, re + e7i-^forc{<d)] en, re + en-\- 
forc{e) + mejit. 

From the derivative for td re, to strengthen^ we get com, 
dis -V com ■\- fort ;^ coin + fort -{■ able or cM + y or less oxer; 
ef-Vfort? 

Helps for the Pupil. — Whatever ^ comforts, strengthens, ^ Effort, 

the putting forth of strength. 

Oer, Oest, Oestur, {gist^ gistr^jest)^ from ger e re^ ges tus^ 

to bear, or carry on, perform. 

Ger + unci or und+ive ;^ belli {bellum, belli, war), vic{e) 
+ ger-hent •/ con + ger-{- {ie&) (L.). Co?i, di, sng + gest;^ 
con, di, in + di, siig + gest + ion * or ive ; di, in + di + gest -h 
ible or ibil-\-ity ; re + gist + er ; re + gistr-i-ar or ar + ship 
or y or at + lo?^ ; Jesf y Jesf + er or ing + ??/. Gestur{e), 

From, ges tic u Id tus, p.p. of ges tic ii Id ri, we get gesticu- 
lat + ion or org or (e). From the frequentative ges td re, 
ges td tus, we get gestat-\-ion or o?'y. From ex ag ger d tus, 
p.p. of the derivative ex ag ger d re, to heap up, we get 
ex ■\- ag -\- gerat -^ ion or ive or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Gerundive, having the nature of a gerund, 
or verhal noun. - Belligerent, hearing war, warlike. The elements of 
things ^digested are &onie apart, separated. ^ Congestion, overcrowding, 

or overfulness. 

Or an 5 {grain^ gam), from grra fium^ grain, fiber of wood or 
cloth. 

Gran + ary or 2^?e or ul + ar or ul-\-ate or td -{- at -{- ion or 
iYe^ or (ge)^ (Fr.) or (i) +i;or + 02^5; grain; 171 -\- grain ;^ 
gam + er or ^^f. 



Word-Building. 179 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Granite, a speckled stone, full, as it were, 
of grains, ^ Grange, a ba^m, and hence grangei^s are farmers. ^Ingrain, 
to dye with seed, grain, or with cochineal — an insect resembling grain. 

^ €rro§s, {grosy gro, g^oc)^ from gros sus^ thick, fat, large. 

Gross ; gross + ly or 7^655 ; 671^ iii + gross ; ^ en + gross + 
77^67^^^ ; grro8 + beak ; gro + gram ^( = grain) ; gro + g ;^ 

groc-\-er^ or ery. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Engross, to write in Zar^e letters. ^ Grog- 
ram, a cZo//?/ of coarse grain or texture. ^ 6^ro^— Admiral Yernon, who 
wore grogram breeches and was called "Old Grog,'* had his sailors 
dilute their rum. The mixture they called grog. ^Grocer, the word 
from the manner of selling — by the gross. 

Integr, see Tact, first list. 

Judic, Judieat, Judicatur, (Judg)^ from ju di cd re 
{=jus + di cd re)f ju di cd tus^ to make known, or interpret, 
the law. 

J'udic^-{\)al or {\)al^-ly or (\)ary or {\)ous^ or {\)ous-\'ly 
or {i)o2is-}-ness ; pre-{-judic+{i)al or {i)al-\-ly ; pre+jii" 
dic{e) i"^ judg -}- meat or (e) ; judg{e) + ship ; ad, pre-h 
judg{e). tTudicat + ory or ive ; ad, pre + Judicata ion or 
(e). fTudicatur{e) . 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Judicious, with good judgment, ^Prejudice, 
a prejudgment, formed without full data, and unfavorable. 

Liing^u, {langu)f from lin gua^ language, tongue. 

Lingti -f al or ist or ist + ic or ist + ics ; ^ langu + age. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Linguistics, the science of languages — 
their origin, growth, change. 



180 The English Language, 



Lessor XXXIII. 

major, {may or) f from major , greater, comparative of 
mag nuSf great. 

Major; fnajor-\- ity^ or ship or gener + al; mayor; 
mayor + ship or al + ty. 

Helps for the Pupil. — '^Majority — when does one come to his 
majority ? And what is the difference between a majority of votes 
and a plurality 9 

Han, Mans, {m^rif maln)^ from ma ne re, man sus, to stay, 
dwell. 

Man -h or or o)^ + (i) al ; pe?^ -f- inan + e?it or ent + ly or 
e7ice J im + ^nan + en t ; ^ re + mn + r/;2^ ; ^ re + main ; re + 

'Wiam + 5 or (d) (Fr.) + er. Mans -\- ion or ion + ry or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Immanent, staying, or divelling, in, or 
within. 2 Remnant, what remains over or after. 

medic, from ^it^r/ i c?^s, a physician. 

Medic -\-al or al-\-ly or t";?e or in + al or in + able. 
From the derivative 7?^6fZ ^ 6^^ r?'^ ?7ze(i ^ <?^ ^2^5, to heal, come 
meclica-\-Me or ment ; medlcat + ed or ^o;^ or t>e or (e). 

Het, Mens, Mensur, {nieasiir), from me ti ri, men sus, to 
measure, estimate. 

Met{e),^ Di + mens + ion;'^ im + mens + 7.7y; m + 
mens(e) ; i'm + mens{Q) + /y or ^^e.s^. Im -h inensur + «5?6 
or abil + ity ; measure able or abl + y or ^6? or (e) ; m + 
fueasur + able or abl + y ; 7neasur{e) + less or ?7?.6?z2f. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Mete, to measure out, ^Dimension, the 
measure from side to side. 



Word-Building, 181 

Mod, (niodi% from tuo dus, measure, manner, fashion. 

Mod{e) ; mod + el or el + er or al or ish or est^ or est + y 
or est + ly or ^c^+(uin) (L.) or ^r^?.^ or er?i-hly or ern + ness 
or er;^ 4- i;2;6 ; com + nio^? + lYi/ ; ^ c^om + Tuodi + o^^5 ; * m + 
com -{- modi + otts or oiis + ly ; 7nodi^-fy or fi-\-er or /^ + 
«^Z>fe OY ftcat-\-ion. 

From mod erdtus, p.p. of mod era ri, to regulate^ we 
have moderate or or ion; moderat(Q) '^^ moderat{e) + ly 
or ^^e55. From mod n Id tus, p.p. of mod uld ri, derived 
from modulus, dim. of modus, we have modtdat -\- ion 
or (e).^ From <zc com mo ^^ re^ ac com mo da tus, we get ^c 
-\- com + modat + ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Modest, within proper bounds or measure. 
2 Modern, as if from modo, now, the now or present fashion. "^ Com- 
modious, in measure, adapted to its use or purpose ; hence ^commodity 
= what is adapted to use or convenience — articles of commerce, 
* Moderate, to reduce to proper measure, to control. ® Modulate, to fit 
or adapt the voice to ^/la^ which it expresses. 

Par, ( paiVf pire^ peer), from 2><^^^ P^ ^^^^ equal. 

Tar; par-^ity ; dis+par-^ity or a^6 or age + ment ; 
pair ;^ um{ = non) +pire ;^ peer; peer + ess or less or 
Zc55 + ^2/ or ^55 + ^655 or age j ^ com -\-peer. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Pair, two things of a hind or sort, hence 
equal. ^ Umpire, without peer or equal, supreme. ^ Peerage, the peers, 
equals originally ; but now men of high rank simply. 

Lessor XXXIV. 

Pand, Pans, Pass, (pac), from pdndere^ pan sus or 
pas sus, to spread, step. 

Ex + pand. Ex -\-pans + {o^ or ^Z>^Z + ity or ^'y^ or ive + /^ 



182 The English Language, 

or ive + ?iess or (e). Pass; pass -\- able or aU-\-y or age or 
eng{=iag) +er ^ or er or ing ; "^ {pass is prefixed to the words 
bool', key, word, port); com, en ^- com, snr, tres+pass ; 
siir, un-\-snr-\-2yass-\-aiIe ; tres+2^ass + er ; pac(e) ; 2>ac 

+ er. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Passenger (the n excrescent), one who passes 
ov journeys. - Passing often = dying — the " Passing of Artlmr." 

Pen, fi'oui i>oe na^ punishment. 

JPen + al or al-\-ty or ance. 

From the derivatiye ^j'te^z i te re, to cause to repent, we get 
penit -hence or ent or ent + ly or e'nt+{i)al or ent-\-{i)ary ; ^ 
im H-pcHif + 67^2^ or e?2ce ; re ^pent ; re -\-pent + ant or a?26'^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Penitentiary, once a building where ^j>e?H"- 
tents confessed ; now o?2e where offenders are confined m punishment. 

Pict, Pictur, (j^aint^ P^g)? from 2>i^«^ 9^ ^"^9 P^c tiis^ to paint. 

I^ig + ment. De-Vpict; pict^ori-\-al ; paint; paint 
+ er or ing. Tictiir{Q) ; pictur -^-esque or esque-hness or 
^55^?^^ + /^. 

Plac, Placit, {jyleas^ ^>?ais^ pleads plea), from place re, 
2)ldc i tus, to please. 

J^?rtc + ?V/ ' or /r/ -f Jy or ^VZ + ify ; com ^-plac + ent or 6??^ + Z?/ 
or ence or ency ; pleas{^) ; pleas ^er or Z??^ or ing ■\-ly or 
r/;zZ or ant-T-hj or ant-\-ness or ant^-ry or 'Z^-e or ur + ahle 
or -z^;* + rtS/ + ^ or ?^r + a5/e + ?^^55 ; co??^ +]?lais + ant or a;?^^ ; 
plead ; ^>ZeafZ + ^?^ or {;?^ + 5 ; plea,' 

From tlie allied xerh 2)la cd re, pla cd tus, we get placa + 
hie or U-\-y or Newness or dil-\-ity ; placate ion or ^<^or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Placid, gentle, peaceful because pleased. 
2 PZea, a pleading which excuses, pleases. 



Word- Building. 183 

Plen, {pleni)f from pie nus, full. 

I^len + ary ; re +plen + isJi or ish + ment or ish + er ; 
pleni + tude on potent (see below) or potent + (i) ary . 

From the derivative noun plen i tas, plenty, we get plent 
+ y J plenti-\-ful or filler ly ov ful-\-ness ; plent e -{- on s or 
ous-\-ly or otts + ness. From the kindred yerh pUre^ to fill^ 
come com/ sup ^ + pie + ment or ment -^ ary ; im-\-ple-\- 
ment ; ^ com, sup +i>^//. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Complement, that which fills out or com- 
pletes, as one hemisphere another ; ^ supplement, an addition only* 
^Implement, means for fulfilliyig or accomplishing, an instrument. 

Plum, {plumi), from 2>^t^ ma^ a feather. 

JPlum{e) ; plum + y or «^e or ?^Zc or ery ; plum.{e) + Iess * 
or fe^; plitmi-i-ger + ous. 

Plumb, (plumbi)^ from plum bum, lead. 

Plumb ;^ plumb + er^ or ery or i^^ or ic or {e)ous or 
(e)«^^ or lin(e) or r*if^(e) ; plumbi + fer + ous ; pliim(m) 

-^et,' 

Helps for the Pupil. — What are a ^ plumb and a ^plummet made 
of, and what metal does the ^plumber handle? 

Pot, Potat, ipois)^ from potd 7*e^ po td tus^ to drink. 

Pot;^ pot -{-ion or able or aile + ness ; pot{i)-\-er or le or 
ery ; -pois + on^ or on-\-ous or 07i-\-er, JPotat-\-ion or or^// 
com -^ potat -{-ion or or. 

Helps for the Pupil. — What must a ^pot have been used for in 
order to get its name, and in what form must ^ poison have been taken ? 

Potent, {potene)^i\iQi present part, root of possum {=p6tis^ 
sum)^ p6s se, to be able. 

Potent; potent -\-{i)al or (i)al-{-ly or {i)al + ityj im-{- 



184 The English Language, 

potent; omni -\- potent ; omni ^ potent ^ly ; 2yotenc-\-y ; 

im^potenc^y or (e) ; omni ^ potenc{Q) . From the poss 
of possum we get 2^oss-}-ibIe or ibl + y or poss + ibil + ity ; 
im+poss-^iUe or iil + y or ibil+ity. 



Lesso]S" XXXV. 

Preliend, Prehens, {jyregn^ prent^ pris^ priz), from 
pre hen de re^ pre hen sus^ to seize, lay hold of. 

Ap\ com,'^ re-{^prehend ; im+pregn + ahle or ahl + y or 

aiil-\-ity ; ap -{- prent + ice or ice -{-ship, Ap, corn, re + 

prehens + ion or ive or itle or 0)1 + y ; j^^^f^^^^ + He j ap, 

^ com,, enter, 5^^r H-jpris(e) ; ap, re, siir -\- pris -^ al ; pris-\rOn 

or on-Ver ; priz{e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — Bring out clearly the difference between 
* appreliend and - comprehend. 

Puii§:, Punct, Punctur, {poign^ punchy point)^ from 
pun ge re^ punc tiis^ to sting, prick, point. 

JPung-{-ent or ejicy ; ex+2^'^^^^9{^) ;' poign-^ant or ant 
■\-ly or ancy. Com -^ piinet + ion'^' or (\)oiis ; punch; 
point; point + er or ed or ed+ly or ed + ness or less, 
JPiinctur{e). 

From picnc tiwi, point, we get piinctii -{- aP or al + ly or 
al+ity. From the diminutive punctilio (Sp.)^ we get 
punct + il + {i)otis or il + {i)ous + ^^55. From the derivative 
verb ptcnc tu a re, punc tu a tus, we get punetuat ■\- ion 
or (e)> 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Expunge^ to prick out. In ^ compunction, 
what is metaphorically represented as pricking? ^Punctual, on the 
Yerj poi7it of time. What is it to ^punctuate? 



Word-Building. 185 

Quadr, {quadru, quadri^ quarts qiiir, quatr^ quat), from 
quad ruSf a square, from qiidt tu or^ four. 

Quadr + ant or a7it -^ al or enni 4- al or oo^ ; ^ quadr -{- 
angitl{angulus, angle) + <^r or a7igl{e) ; qtiadru + i>6d^ or 
ped -{- al or pie or plex ; quadri-\-later{latus, lateris, side) 
+ (^/_,* quart ; quart ^-er or er + ly or e^^e or a^ or (o) (It.) ; 
quir{e) ; ^ quatr + <q^?*7? ; ^ quat + er?^ + ary or em + ^o^^. 

From the derivative qnad rd re, quad rd tus, we have 
quadrat;^ quadrat ^ic or ics ;^ quadr atur (^) \ s{ = es 
=^ex) -\* quadr -\- on ; s{=es = ex) + quar{e) ; s -h quar{e) -{- 
ly or ness ; s{=es = ex) + quad ; quar + ry.^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Quadroon, the black blood only one fourth, 
2 Quire, sheets of paper packed four (now twenty-four) together. ^ Quat- 
rain, a stanza oi four lines, or verses. '^Quadrat (quad.), a square 
block of type-metal used in spacing. ^ Quadratics, that branch of 
algebra in which the highest power of x, y, etc., is a square. ^ Quarry, 
the place where stones are dug and squared. 

Quant, {quanti)^ from qudn tus^ how much % 

Quant + (um) (L. ) or ity ; quanti -[-fy or ftcat + ion . 
From qudn ti tas, quan ti td Us, come quantit + ive or ive 
+ ly J quantitat + ive or ive -i-ly. 

Quer, Quisit, (quir^ quest)^ from gtecB re re^ quce si tus, to 
seek, search for, ask, inquire, 

Quer + y or ist ; con + quer ; ^ con + quer + or or aljle ; ac, 
in, re 4- quir{e) ; ^c, re + quir{e) + m^^^ ; ^^, r^ + gm^ + 
able; in -\- quir -{- er or ^^^ or ing-\-ly or ^ or (e). ^c, dis^"^ 
in, re-^-quisit-^-ion; ex,^per, re-hquisit{e) ; ac, in-{-quisit 
+ ive or ^Ve + ^655 ; in + quisit + or or on + <^/ ; quest ; con, 
in, re + quest ; quest + ion or ^o^ 4- ccble or io^ + a5?6 + ness 
or ion + less or or^ or or + ship. 



186 The English Language. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Conquer, to seeh and gain by force, ^ Dis- 
quisition, a searching investigation. ^ Exquisite, sought out carefully ; 
hence, of surpassing quality. ^ Questor, a receiver of taxes at Rome. 

Qui, Quiet, (qititf coy)<, from qui es ce re^ qui e tus^ to rest, 
repose, release, 

_Qui + esc + ent or ent-^ly or ence ; ac^qui-hesc + ent ov 
ence or esc{e).^ Quiet ; quiet + lg or 7iess or ude or ist or 
ism; dis + quiet; dis + quiet -h tide J quit^ (^dj.); qttit{e); 
quit + claim ; coy ;^ coy + ly or ness or ish or ish + 7iess. 

From the derivative verb §'i^i e td re, to calm, to quiet, we 
get quit ^ (verb) ; quit[t) -\- ance ; ac-\-quit; ac + quit{t) -{- 
al or ance ; re + quit[e) \^ re + quit-j-al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Acquiesce, to 7'est satisfied. ^ Quit (adj.), 
freed from; ^ quit (verb), to free from, to leave. ^ Cog, bashful, retired, 
* Requite, to return like for like. 

Lessor XXXVI. 

RadI, (ray)^ from rd di us^ a ray. 

Madi^-al or (us) (L.) ; ray ; ray + less. 

From the derivative ra di a re, ra di a tits, we get radi-h 
ant or ant-\-ly or ance ; radiat + ion or (e) ; ir + radiate- 
ion or ant or (e). 

Rap, Rapt, Raptur, {rav^ rept)^ from rap e re^ rap tuSj 
to seizo, snatch, hurry away. 

JR«jf> + id or id + ly or id 4- ity or id + 5 or ^?^<^ or acious or 
acious + ??/ or n'c + ^Vy ; rav + ^^^6 or en or ^Ti + o^^s or en + 02^5 
+ ly or ^V^6 ^ or ish or /^A + er or ish + m^r or ish + me7^^. 
Rapt; sur-i-rept + it{-=ic)-\-{i)ous'^ or it + {i)ous + ly. Hap- 
tur{e) ;^ raptur + ous or oiis + ly ; en + raptur{Q). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Ravine, a ^or^e cut out by rushing floods. 



Word- Building. 187 

2 Surreptitious, done stealthily and with violence. One in ^ rapture is 
caught up and hurried away in thought and feeling. 

Rat, {rati^ reas)^ from re ri, r<^ #i^s, to think, suppose, calcu- 
late, fix, settle. 

JKaf (e) ; ^ 02;<9r^ under -i-r at (e) ; rat + able or abl + y oi 
^5fe + 7^655 or ^07^ or (io) (L. ) or ion + al or ^07^ -\-al + ly or ^o/^ 
-{-al+ize or ion + al + ist or io7i + al + ist + ic or ion + al-\- 
ism or ^o/^ + a/ + ^^2/ ^* ^^'^^ +/^ ^ ^^' -^ + ^^ ^^ y^caf + ion ; reas 
-hon^ or on + er or on + ing oron + able'^ or on + abl-\-y or o^ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Bate, the fixed proportion. ^ Batify, to 
sanction, approve. ^ Reason, the intellectual faculty which thinks, con- 
cludes. ^ Reasonable, having reason, agreeable to the reason, 

Reg^, Rect, (roy^ rig^ regi^ ress^ recti)^ from regere^ 
r6c tus, to rule, direct, arrange. 

J^eg + aV or al-\-ly or al-\-ity or ^n/ or ^^zc^/ ^^ ^'<>^y <s^^ 
+ gr(=:resr)(e) ; in ■\- sur ^ g ■\- ent or ency ;'^ sou-\-r{=reg) 
-\-ce;^ re-\-sou + r + ce; re + al -\- (m.) ; roy + al or al + ty 
or al-\-ist; cor, in + cor-^rig^-ible^ or ible^-ness or /J^7 + 
iYy ; regi-\-men^ or me?z^ or ment-{-al or cid{e). Cor, di, 
e + rect; cor, di, e, in-\-sur, re^sur -\-rect-{-ion ; cor, di, 
e + rect + or or ^V^ or ly or ^^55 ; reef + or or or + ate or ory ; 
di-\-rect-\-ory or or -V ate; d{ = di)-{-ress ;^ d + ress-{-y ; 
ad + d, re-\-d + ress ; i^ecti + tude or fy ov fi + er or fl-\- able 
or j^caf + ioTZ. 

Prom the derivative reg nd re, we get regn-\-ant or ancy ; 
reign. From the derivative noun reg u la, we get regul + 
^r or <^r + ly or ar + ity ; ir + regul + ar or ar + ly or ^r + ^Vy ; 
rul-\-er or ^/^5' or (e). From reg u Id tus, p.p. of reg u Id re, 
we get regulati-ion or ive or or or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Regal, pertaining to the king, the ruler. 



188 The Englisli Language, 

' Insurgency— the directing, or taking one's way, may be from under, 
3 Source, the rise or origin or cause of anything. * Corrigible, that 
may be set aright or corrected. ^ Regimen, the prescribed rule, as of 
diet. ^ Dress, to arrange in line, to arrange one's clothes. 

Rid, Ris^ (ridi)^ from ridere^ rlstis^ to mock, to laiigh^ to 
laugh at. 

i>e + rid{e) : de + ^"ifZ + ^r; HtZi + cule or cz^Z + ous. His + 
^'Sfe or ihil + ity or itl^y ; de + ris + ion or tVe or ive + lu or 



Lessor XXXVII. 

Riv, from H vus^ a stream ; rt 2>fi^ a bank, shore. 

J^ii; + er or ^?? or al + r^/; ' C07% out + riv + ^Z ; riv -{-ul-{-ef» 
From the derivatives of rivus, we get de-h riv -{-able or ail 

+ y or (e) ; de -\-rivat + ion or ive or ive + ly ; ar + riv + al 

or (e)/ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Rivalry— why . originally, between those on 
opposite banks of a river f ^^ Arrive, originally, to reach the shoj^e— 
what, now ? 

Rog^« Rog^at, from ro gd re, ro gd tus, to ask, question , solicit. 

Ar-\-rog + ant^ or a7it + ly or ^;zc6 or ancy. Ah, ar, de, 
inter, sur-^rogat{e)','^ ab, de, inter, pro,^ super ^ ■\- e -\- ro- 
gat ^ ion; de,inter -\-rogat-\-ory ; inter, pre ^rogat -rive. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Arrogant, claiming for one's self — now, 
more than one's due. ^ Surrogate, a substitute, an officer who presides 
over the probate of wills. ^Prorogation, the ending of a session of Par- 
liament and the postponing of its business. * Supererogation, the (^oi/^^ 
mor6 than c^i^^^/ requires. 



Word-Building. 189^ 

Hupt, Ruptur, {rout, rut)^ from rum pe re, rup tus, to 
break, destroy^ burst. 

Ab, banh^ (bench), cor, inter + rupt ; cor, dis, e, inter, ir 
+ rupt + ion ; ab + rupt + ly or 7iess ; cor + rupt + ly or ness 
or er or ^i5>/^ or ibl-{-y or ibil-\-ity or ible + ness ; in + cor-i- 
rupt-\-ly or 72^55 or ^6>fe or ibl + y ; e, iri-rupt + ive ;■ inter, 
un + ^/^^6r + r^ipt + e^ or ed + ?^ ; Z><3^^^ + rupt 4- 6?y ; rout ; ^ 
rout(e)'/ rout-^ine; rut. Mu2Jtur{e), 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Bankrupt, one unable to pay his c?€te. At 

Florence, it is said, the bankrupt had his bench (^.e., money table) 
broken (Webster). ^ Jiout, the lines of the army hrohen, ^ Route, a way 
broken, or cut through. 

Sal, from sal^ sd lis^ salt. 

Sal(i) ; sal + ine or ary or a^?; saZ(t)+6r or ish or ^^55 
or less or petr{e) (see Lesson XLIII.). 

From the derivative sa li re, sal sus, we get sauc-hy or 
i-\-ly or i-\-ness or ^r or (e) ; saus + age. 

Sal, Salt, {sali, sili, sail, suit, sault), from sa^ li re, sal tus^ 
to leap, rush, issue suddenly forth. 

Sal{l)+y; sal + (mon) ; ' salt + ent'^ or ent + ly ; re-\-sili 
+ ent or ence ; as + sail ; as + sail + a^^ or «5fo ; de -f- ^^^^^ 4- 
ory ^ or or^ + ly or or/ 4- /le^,^ ; as + sault. 

Prom the derivative sal tare, saltdtus, we get saltat + 
ory or io^ ; ex + i^^f ( = suit) ; ^ e:?; + ^e^f + ant or m^ + Z/y ; 
ex -{- ultat -{- ion ; re + suit; re -^ suit -{-ant. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Salmon, the fish named, perhaps, from its 
habits. 2 Salient, springing forward, projecting. ^ Desultory, leaping 
from one thing to another, as from horse to horse in the ring ; incon- 
stant, ^ Exult, to leap for joy. 



190 The English Language, 

^anct^ (sanctif sanctii^ saint)^ from san cl re sane tus^ to 
ordain, to make sacred, 

Safiet + io7i or ity or (um)(L.) ; sancti-{-fy or fi-\-er or 
fteat + ion or mony or moni-\-ous^ or mo7ii + ous + ly or moni 
H- 0i^5 4- ness ; sanctii + ary ; saint ; saint + ly or ^i>fce or ed. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Sanctimonious, affecting sanctity. 

Sat, from sa fis^ enough. 

Sat[h)'\-fy or fact + ion or faet-\-ory or fact-\-ori-\-ly ; 
dis + saf (is) +/?/ or /acf + ^o?z. 

From the kindred verb sa ti a re, sa ti a tiis^ come saf (e) ; 
sat + 66? ; sati + 6^Z?fo ; ^'m + sati + aSZe or abl H- ^ or « Jfo + ness 
or ahil-\-ity ; satiate ion or (e). From the kindred adj. 
sd tur, we get satir + ist or i^e or ic + al or (e)/ From the 
derivative verb sat u rare, saturdtus, we get satur -V ahle ; 
saturate ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Satire, originally, a dish filled with mixed 
ingredients, a medley ; a species of '^^'^Y holding men or things up to 

Sec, Sect, (^egr, sci^ sick)^ from se ca re^ sec tus^ to cut. 

Sec + a^i^ ; co + sec + a7^^ ; seg + m^?i^ ; 8ci + on ; sick + le. 
Bi, dis, in, inter, tri^sect; sect ■\- or or ion or ion + al or 
ion + al + ism; bi, dis, inter, tri, vivi-\- sect -\- ion. 



Lessor- XXX\aiI. 

Sen, from se neoc^ old. 

Sen + He or il + ity or esc + ent or ior (L. comp. ending) 
or ior 4- i^y. Senior is written also 5^Ve, sir, seignior. 



Word- Building, 1 91 

From the derivative noun se nd tus, we get senat-\-or ' or 
or-\-{i)al or or + {i)al + ly or or-hship or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Senator, etymological ly, an old man, 

Serv, from ser vi re^ to serve, see first list, additional roots. 

Serv, Servat, from servdre^ servdtus^ to save, protect, 
give heed to. 

Con, oh, pre, re + serv{e) ; C07i, oh, pre-\-serv-]-er ; oh-{- 
serv + ahle or ahl + y or ant or ant-\-ly or ance ; oh, re, 
un + oh, un-\-re-\-serv-[-ed ; re + serv-\-ed + ly or ed + ness; 
re -h serv + (oir) (Pr. ) . Con, oh, pre, re -\- servat + ion ; con, 
oh + servat + or or ory ; con, pre + servat + ive ; con + servat 
4- ism, 

Si§t, see Sta below. 

Son, Sonit (sonn^ soun)^ from so nd re^ son i tus^ to sound. 

Son -\- or -\- oils or or-\-oits + ly or or -\- ons -\- ness ; uni-h 
son; sonn + et' or et + eer; soiin{di) (the ^ excrescent); 
«ot^n'(d) + less or i/^^ ; re + soun{d), Sonat -j- (a) (L.). 

From the derivatives of sonare, we get as, con, dis, re-\- 
son + cmt or aiice ; per,'^ par "^ ■\- son ; per, par -\- son ^ age \ 
per 4- son -f al or al + Z?/ or ^Z + ity or «Z + ty ;^ im -\-per + soi?. 
+ al or <2Z + /y ; per + ^oni +/?/ or flcat + ^o^^ ; per + sonat + 
^o?^ or or or (e) ; im + per '\- sonat -[-ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Sonnet, a stanza of fourteen lines. ^ Per- 
son, so called from the large-mouthed mask, worn by actors, through 
which the voice was made to sound (personare) with increased reso- 
nance. The name then extended to every one. The ^parson was the 
chief person in the parish. * Personalty, movables, chattels, as opposed 
to real estate. 



192 The English Language. 

Sort, from sors, sor tis^ lot, class, order, share. 

Sort ; sort + er or a?ice ; as, con, re + sort ; as + sort -f- 

ment. 

From the derivative sor ti a re, to cast lots^ Ave g^i sorcer 
-\-y ^ or er or ess. 
Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Sorcery, divination bv casting of Jots, magic. 

Spici, see Spec, Spic, first list. 

Sta, Stat, {stf stet)f from stare, status, to stand, Stant, 
the present participle form, Sist, from sis te re, std tits, the 
causal and reduplicated form of stare. 

Sta-hMe' (iulicm) or lining \ con {Iyowl comes — cum-\- 
ire, to go^ —.count) ^sta-\-ile ; sta-^hle {able) or bl + y or 
ble-hness or bil + ity or il+ish or juen or min+ (a) (L.) ; e-\- 
sta -{-M + ish or il + ish + ment ; oh + sta f cJe ; ^ con, di, in ^ + 
sta -\-nt {=. ant) or nt-^- lij; equl + di + sta -\-nt ; circum," di, 
in, sui ^ -f sta + nc{ = nt) (e) ; 6^(>;<^ + sta + nc + g j in -f- sta + '?^^ 
-i-an^{e)ous ; circum, siii-i-sta-^7it + {i)al or nt+{i)al + lij 
or nt-\-{i)ate; tran + suh + sta + nt+ {i)ateoY {i)at^ion; sui 
-\-sta + nt-\-ive; ex + ta{ = sta) + 7itj sta + 7i{za) (It.); sta + 
n{ch) -{-io?i ; ar-{-re, contra, re^ + st ; re + sf + ive or ive + 
ness. Stat{e) ; e, in, re, re-hin+stat{e) ; stat{e) + Ig or Z^ + 
ness ; stat + ion ov ioji + arg ov ion + erg or ion + er'' or ^5^ 
or 15/ 4- ^c + al or ?'6?^ + ics or f^^ + /<? -f ian or ?^/'6' or ed ; ol + 
stet + rix or r/c-f,9 or ric + al. 

From the derivative noun stdt u a, a stc.-.aing image^ we 
get statu + arg or c^/^^ or esqne or (e). From the derivative 
verb sta tu e re, sta tu tus, to set up^ establisli^ we get statiit 
+ al)le or abl-\-y or org or (e) ; co7i, de, in, pro, sui + stitiit + 
ion or (e) ; con ^ stitii ^ ent or ency ; con + stitut -\- ion ■\- al 
or ion-\-al-{-ly or ion + al-\-ist or ion-{-al + is?n or i2;e ; m + 
stitut -\-ion + al or n'^ ; re + stitut + zo?^. 



Word' Building. 193 

Sis te re^ the causal of stare, gives us as, con, de, in, per, 
re, sub + sist / as, re + sist + ance ; as + sist + ^^^ ; co/^, in, 
in-^con, per, sub-\-sist-{-ent or ^7^(;6; con, in + con + sist + 
ency ; re, ir-\-re + sist-[-iUe or ibl-{-y or Ml -\-ity or ible -{- 
7iess or less OY less -hness ; ex-{-ist{=sist) ;^ ex + ist-^-ent or 
6^?^ce ; super + sf if i + on ^ or ous or o^^5 + ly ; armi {arma, 
arms), soV"^ {sol, solis, the sun) + 8fic(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Stable, a huilding for animals, ^ Obstacle, 
literally, something standing in the way. ^ Instant, standing near, at 
the heels of, pressing, urgent. ^ Circumstance, literally, standing 
around, ^ Substance, that standing under, and embodying, its qualities. 
® Rest, that which stands, or is left, over, ' Stationer, originally one 
who had a station or stand for the sale of boohs. ^ Exist, to stand out, 
to arise, /o be. ^ Superstition, a standing over or by a thing as in dread 
or wonder, hence excessiveness in worship or belief. ^" Solstice, the point 
in the ecliptic where the sw/i seems ^o s/ancZ s^t7Z in its northward or 
southward motion. 

Lessok XXXIX. 

^tell, from stel la^ a star. 

Stell-\-ar or ul-\-ar. 

From the derivative vb. stel Id re, stel Id tus, and n. stel Id- 
tio, we have stellate ed or (e) ; con -\- stellate ion, 

^trlng^, Strict, Strictur, {strain ^ straint^ strait, stress) ^ 
from strin ge re, stric tus, to bind, draw ti^ht, filter. 

String -^^ ent or ent + ly or ency ; a + string + ent or ency; 
strain; strain + er; con, di, re -{-strain; con, re -{-strain 
-{-able; con -{- strain -\- ed or ed-\-ly. Strict; strict -\-ly or 
ness ; di, re -{- strict ; con -{- strict -\- ion or or ; re -\- strict -\- 
ion or ive or ive + ly or ed ; un-{-re-h strict + ed ; con, di, re 
-{-straint; strait; strait -{-en or ly or ness; strait -{-s; 
di + stress ; di + stress -^ful or ful-{- ly or ing, Strictur^Q) . 



194 The English Language, 

Su or Sui, from sii i^ of one's self. 

Sui + cid{ccBdere^ to slay)+aZ or cid-\-al-\-ly or cieZ(e). 

^uad, !§ua§, from sudd e re, sua sus, to adyise^ exhort. 

Bis, per + suad{e) ; dis, per -\- suad + er or ed, Suas-\- 
ion or ive or ive + ly ; dis, per + siias + io^ or ^Ve or ive + ?^ 
or ive + ^^e^s. 

From the kindred adj. su a vis we have suav{e) ; suav 
+ ity. 

^iirg^ see Re^, Rect, above. 

Taill or Tail, {tall), from tailler (Fr.)^ to cut. 

Tail -[-or or or + ingj de, en, re + tail; de + tail + s; en 
-\-tail-\-ment ; tall + y,^ 
Helps for the Pupil. — How was the ^ tally originally kept? 

Tang, see Tact, first list. 

TegTj Tectj from teg e re, tec tus, to cover. 

Teg{ij) + ment ; i?i + teg{ii) + ment or ment + ary. Be, 
pro + tect ; de-\-tect-\-ion or ive or or or er ; pjro-^tect-^ion 
or ion + ist or it^e or ive + ly or or or or + al or or -V ate or or 
4- 5^1^ or r 4- e^^ ; un -{-pro + f^cf + ed. 

From the diminutive noun teg u la we get til(e) ; til-j-ing 
or ery. 

Temper, {temp, tens), from tefnptis, tern par is, time. 

Tempore al or al + ly or al + ity or a^*^ or ari + ly or t^ri 
+ ;z655 or i^e or 1*2: + ^r; con + tempor + ary or an + {e)ous ; 
eX'i-tefnpor{e) ^ or a/« + {e)ous or ^;2;6 ; temjy + le ; ^ tens(e). 

From the derivative noun tern pes tas, tern pes tdtis, we 
get tempest;^ teinpest{u) ■{- ous or ous-\-ly or ous + ness. 



Word' Building, 195 

From the kindred verb tempe rd re, tempe rd tus, to mode- 
rate, qualify, we get temper ^ at, dis + temper; tempera 
+ nce or ment ; taiuper; temperat{(d) , temper at (^ -\-ly 
or ness ; in-\-teinpera-\-nce ; in + te7nperat{Q) ; in-^tem^ 
perat{e) + ly or ness ; temper atur{e) , 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Extempore, without time taken for prepara- 
tion. ^ Temple, the fiat portion of either side of the head above the 
cheek-bone. ^ Tempest, had time or weather, a storm, 

LEsso:tT XL. 

Tend, Tens^ or Tent, from t6n de re^ ten sus^ or ten tus^ to 
stretch, strive, try. 

Tend;^ at, con, dis, ex, ifi, por,^ pre, pro, sub, super -\- 
in + tend; tend -{-on or ency ; at ^ tend ^ ant or ance ; 
tend + er ; pre-]- tend -{-er ;^ in-\-tend-\-ed ot ant or ment; 
super + in + tend + ent or ence. Tens{e) ; tens + ion or He ; 
in, pre + tefis{e) ; dis, ex + tens + ion ; ex + tens + ^V^ or ive 
+ /^ or ive + 7^e5.9 or ^'JZe or ihil + ^^^ ; in + f e^s + fz;^^ or ive 4- 
??/ or ity or (i)/?/ or {\)fieat-]-ion. Tent ;^ con, ex, in, por 
+ tent ; at, con, in, in + at-{- tent + ion ; at, in \at-{- tent + 
ive or ive + ly. 

From the derivatives os ten de re, os ten sus, and os ten- 
ia re, OS ten td tus, to show, exhibit, display, we have os -V tens 
-]-ihle or iil + y ; os + tentat-^ion or {i)ous or {\)ous-{-ly or 
{\)ous-\-ness. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Tend, stretches toward. ^ Portend, to 
stretch out towards, to point to. ^ Pretender, one who stretches, or lays, 
claim to what is not his. ^ Tent, canvas stretched out with ropes. 

Test, (testi), from t6s tis^ a witness, one who attests. 
Testi+fy or fl-\-er or mony or moni-\-al. 



196 The English Language. 

From the derivatiye tes td ri, tes td tus, to depose, to make 
one^s last will, we have testa -{-ment or ment + ary ; testat + 
or or r + ix; in -\- test at (e) ; at, con, de, pro + test ; con-\- 
test + aUe ; de + test + aile or ahl + y or able + ness ; pro + test 
■\-ant or ant -\- ism or er ; at, de, pro-\-testat-\-ion. 

Tort, Tortur, ifor^ tors^ tortu)^ from tor que re, tor tus, to 
turn, wrest, twist. 

Tort ; ^ con, dis ex, re ^ + tort ; con, dis + tort + ion ; ex + 
tort -f ion or ion + er or ion + ary or ion + ate ; tort + (oise) ; ^ 
tor •{- orient or ment-^or or ment-\-ing-\-ly ; tors + ion; tortu 

+ OUS OTOUs + ly or oics -\- ness or os + ity, Tortur + able or 
er or (e)/ 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ To7't, a wrongful act, twisted from the right, 
2 Retort, a censure returned ; a twisted, or &en^, ^i^Se. ^ Tortoise, named 
from its hent feet. "^ Torture, writhing pain. 

Trah, Tract, {trac, trail, train, tray, trait), from trd he» 
re, trdc tus, to draw, 

8uh-\- trail + e7id, ^ Tract ; ^ tract + ife or i7 + ity or ^07^ ; 
ais, at, con, de, dis, ex, pro, sub ■\- tract ; ahs, at, con, de, 
dis, ex, pro, sub + tract + ion ; con, de, ex, pro-Vtract-{-or ; 
at ^ tract -\- able or abil + ity or ive or ive + ly or ive + ness ; 
abs, dis, pro + tract + ed or ed + ?«/ ; co^ + tract + ^^ or ed + ?^ 
or ed-\-ness or ^Z^?e or ible-\-ness or ibil-{-ity o'cile or il + ity ; 
trac + er or m^ or m/ or (e) ; trac{e) + ^5fe ; f/*ai? / train ; 
train + er ; por + f ra?/ ; trait ; por + ^ra«Y / por + ^ratf 4- 
ure. 

From the frequentative ^r«c td re, trac td tus, to handle, 
manage, we get tract ;^' tracta + ble or bl-\-y or ble + ness or 
&i7 + i^2/ or 7* + ian ; re + tract ;^ re + tract + ion or i^e or 



Word-Building. 197 

He ; tractat(e) ; re + tractat + ion ; treat ; treat + y or ise or 
ment ; en-\-treat ; en-^-treat-Vy. 

Helps for the Pupil. — From what is the ^ svMraJiend to be drawn, 
or taken ? ^ Tract, a region drawn or traced ; ^ tract, a short treatise, 
^ Retract, to handle again, to withdraw. 

Trit, (^W)^ from ^er e re^ ^ri f ies^ to wear, rub, waste. 

Trit{e) ; ^ trit{e) + Zy ^^ ^^^^ ^* ^^^ + tiHt{e) ; ^ co^ + trit{e) 
+ ly ; at, con, de + trit + ion ; de -r trit + (us) (L.) ; de + tri 
+ ment or ment-{-al. 

From the derivatives jf?^i5 ^^ Id tus and ?^n7 -z^ rd tus, perfect 
participles of trib u Id re and trit u rd re, we get tribulat 
+ ion ; ^ triturat + ion * or (e) . 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Trite, worn out by use, hackneyed. ^ Con- 
trite, thoroughly ruhhed, bruised ; hence 'penitent. ^ Tribulation, an 
affliction or providence sent to thresh and to separate the corn from the 
chaff of our natures, as the tribulum was used in real threshing. * TnY- 
uration, reducing to grains or c?ws^. 



Lesso:n^ XLI. 

Trud, Trus, from tru de re^ tru sus^ to thrust, push. 

De, ex, in, oh, pro + trud{e); in, ob + trtid-\-er. De, ex, 
in, oh, pro + trus + ion ; in, ob, in ■\-ob-\- trus + ive or ive + ly 
or ive + ness ; abs-\-trt(s{e); abs-htrtis{ey -^ly or ness. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Abstruse, the meaning thrust aside, con- 
cealed. 

Und, Undat, from un dd re^ un da tus (from unda^ wave), 
to surge, swell. 

Ab, red, super -\- ab -\- und -{■ ant or ant-{-ly or ancej ab, 
red, super -\- ab ^- {o)und. In + undat + ion or (e). 



198 The English Language. 

From un du Id tus, p.p. of un dii let re, a derivative from 
un du lay a little wave, we get tmdiUat + ion or ory or (e). 

Vad, Vas, from vdd e re, vd sus^ to go, rush. 

E, iuy per + vad{e) ; in + vad + er. E, in, per + vas + ion 
or ive or i^e + ly ; e, per + vas + ^z;^ + /^e55. 

Val, {valu^ vaiT)^ from i^a le re, to be strong, to be of worth. 

Vol + id or iW + ity or itZ + Z^ or or or or + ous or o?- + ot^5 + 
ly or {i)ant or {i)ant 4- Zy or {i)ant + ^e^^ or e/i^^ + t^e ; m + ^*a? 
+ id or 1^ + ity or ^6? + ^5m or id + at + ion or id + az^e ; eg'iti, 
pre + f «^ + e^^ or e7it + /^ or e?ice : val{e) + dicf + ory or dicf 
+ ^o^^ or tud + {in) -\-ar + ian or 2^^6Z+(in) +^r + ^a7^ + ^5m 
or ^2^<i + (in) + ^ry ; con + val-\-esc + e?it or esc^ence or esc 
(e) ; valu + aSZe or a^ + ion or a^ + or or (e) ; under + valu{e) ; 
in-\-valu-\-aile J a, pre + vail ; a + vail + able or ail + y or 
abil + ity ; un-Va^ vail + m^ or a J?e. 

Ven, Vent, Ventur, {veni^ venu^ ventu)^ from venire^ 
ven tus^ to come. 

Con, contra, inter, super -{-ven{e) ; co + ven + ant or ant + 
er ; con + veni + ent' or ent + ly or 6/^c6; vemi{e) ; a, re + 
i;emf(e). ^c?, circum, con, e,^ in, pre ■\- vent ; con, contra, 
in, inter, pre^ \- vent 4- ion ; in, pre + vent + ive : in + vent 

+ or or ory ; 6 + ^•6iif -^ful ; 6?072. + I'enf + io7i + «Z or ion + c^? 

+ ??/ or ion-^al + is7n or io?i + al + ity or {\)cle ; con, e + 
ventti-^al ; e + ventn + al -\- ly . Ventiir{e) '/ ad, mis + ad, 
per + ad-\- vetitiir^e) ; ventitr -f oi^s + ^y j ventiir{e) 4- 50we ; 
ad + ventiir + o?^5 or oz^s + ^655 or er. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Convenient, coming together ; hence suitable, 
'^ Event, whsit comes out, result. ^Prevention, literally, coming ahead ; 
hence hindering, thwarting. ^ Venture, an undertaking whose issue or 
event is future and can not be foreseen. 



Word-Building, 199 



Lesson^ XLII. 
Vert, Ver§, (versi)^ from ver te re^ ver sus^ to turn. 

Vert -\- (ex) (L.) or (igo) or ic -{- al or ic -[- al + ly ; a, ad, 
anini-had, con, contro, di, in, per, re, retro, sub -V vert ; 
ad-\-vert + ise or ise^ment or is + er; in-\-ad-{-vert-{-ent 
or ent + ly or ence ; con + vert -\-ible or iil^-y or ihil^-ity, 
Vers{e) ; vers -\- ion; a, ad, di, in, oh, per, re, trails, tra, 
tini -{- vers{e) ; a, anirn + ad, con, di, in, per, re, retro, sub 
-V vers -V ion ; ad-\-vers-\-ary or ity ; anni + vers + ary; 
co7itro-^vers-\-y ; con, di, per, trans + ver s{e) -\- ly ; re^ 
vers + al or ion + ary ; tml + vers + al or al + ist or al + ity 
or ity; versi+fy or fi-i-er or ficat-{-ion ; di -h versi -h fy 
or ity ; contro + ver si + ^Z or ci^Z + ly or a? + ist. 

From the frequentative i;er sd ri, ver sd tus, we have 
con 4- ^'6r8 + ant or (e) ; ver sat + i'fo or ^7 + ity ; con + ver sat 
+ ion or ion + al or ion -{• al + ist ; tergi{tergum, back) -f 

Vi, ivoy)^ from t^i a^ way. 

De, oh, irn -{-per + vi + 0W5 or o-x/s + ly or 0i^5 + ness ; tri + 
vi + aP ov al-hly or al + ity ; vi{si) -{- duct ; voy-^age or 6i5^ 
4-er. 

From the derivative vb. vi a re, via tus, we get con + vey ; ^ 
con + vey -{- ance or anc-Ver ; con, en+voy; de + viat + ion 
or (e) ; oh -{• viat{e) . 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^ Trivial — of what character would be the 
conversation of people meeting at the junction of (three) ways ? ^ Con- 
vey^ to 'bring along the way. 



200 The English Language, 

Vic, {vis)f from vi cis^ turn, change, stead 5 ablative case, vi ce, 
in place of. 

Vic + ar or ar + age or ar-{-{i)al or ar-\'(i)o^is or ar4- 
(i)o?^5 -f ly ; t^ic(e) + roy or regr + a/ or ger + <9^?f or jt?r^ + sicZ 
+ e^?^ or pre^sid + ency ; vis -^ count {comes = cum + ire, 
to go with). 

VoBv, Volut, (voln^ volt)^ from volvere^ volutus^ to roll, 
turn around. 

Circum, con, de, e, in, re-{-volv{e) ; re + volv + er. Co7i, e, 
in, re + volut -\- ion ; e, re + volut •{■ ion -{-ist or ion + ary ; 
volu -h me ^ (=men) or mm -f ous or mm + ous + Z^ or 5/^ or 
M + y or hil + ity ; re ^ volt ; re^-volt + er or m^' or ing + ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — What do you infer from the fact that the 
first ^ volumes were rolls ? 

Vot, {vow, vout), from vov6re, votus, to wish, to promise 
solemnly, to dedicate. 

Vow ; a, dis + ^ + voiv ; a, dis ■\-a-V vow + al, Vot{e) ; 
vot + er or ive or ive + ly or ary or ar + ist or ar + ess or 
r + e^s; 6?6 + t;o^(e) ; de + vot + ed or ed-Vly or ed-^ness or 
io^ or ^07^' H- «^ or 66 ; 6?e 4- ^'o^ff ; ^i'e + ^'o^^f + ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — What does a ^ vote express ? 



GEEEK ROOTS. 

Lessq]^ XLIII. 

Areli, {arche, archi)^ from drchein, to be first ; arche^ be- 
ginning, rule, chief. 

Mon, patri {pater, father), tetr{tetra, tour) + arch; an, 
hept {hepta, seven), Mer {hieros, sacred), mon, olig{oligos^ 



Word' Building, 201 

few) + arch + y ; mon, olig + arch + ic + al ; patri + arch 
-\-al; arch-hive + s; arch + duk{e) or duch + y or deacon 
or angel ; arche + typ{e) or typ -f aZ ; archi + ^6C^ {tekton, 
workman) or tect + ^^r6 or tect + ur + al or e^i + scop 4- aZ or 
pelago (sea) or trave (trais, beam). 

Cyel, {cyclo)j from c^clus, Gk. huMos^ circle, cycle, round of 
events. 

Cycl + ic or ic + al; en + cycl -\- ic -\- al ; cycl-\-ops (eye) ; 
ep/^ tri, ii + cycl{e) ; cyclo + ne; c?/c^o + pedia {paideia, 
instruction); e7^ + c?/c^o + pedia ; cyclop- id or id + aL 

Hor, (horo^ hour)^ from hora^ hour, season. 

JETor + aZ or ary ; horo + sco'p{^) or scojp + ic or scop + ^'c 
+ aZ or log{e) or log + y or log + ic + al ; hour; hour + ly 
or glass or plate. 

Pan, { panto) f from pan ^ pantos ^ all, whole. 

JPan + the{theos, God) +is7n or the -\- ist or the + isf + ic or 
the + o/^ ; ^;al^ + egyr 4- ic or egyr + ist or egyr + ic + a? or egyr 
•i-ize; pan + oiplj {opla, armor); pan -{- Sice3> {ahos, cure); 
pan 4- demoni + um ; pan + dect -\-s ; pan -f orama (sight) or 
oram+ic or creas (flesh); panto + mim {mn.t^iQ)-{-{Q) or 
mim + ic or ?7?m + ist. 

Petr, {petri)f from petra^ rock. 

l^e^(e)r ; pctr + eP or oleum '^ (c>il) ; sa^(t) -[-2>efr(e) ; 
petri -\-fy or fi + er or /acf + ion or fact + ive or /?caf 4- ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Fetrel, the name given to the bird from its 
supposed ability to walk on the sea, like St. Peter. ^ Petroleum, called 
rock oil at first. 



202 Tlie English Language, 

Phoii, (phono)f from phone^ sound. 

Phon + ic or ics ; anti^pTion; anti-\-plion^-y ; eu + 
phon + y or ic or ic + al or {i)ous or {i)ous-{-lyj sym + 
phon + y or ist or {i)ous or {i)ousi-ly; phon -\- et + ic ot et 
-\- ic -}- al OT et + ic + al + ly or et + ics or ics ; j^^^^o 4- graph 
or graph -f er or graph + ic or graph + iV? + a? or ^ogr + 3/ or 
typ{e), 

Phy§i, {physio) y from j^husis^ nature. 

Physi^c{—ic) oi c + al or c + al + ly or c + ian or c + ist 
or 6^5; meta-\-physi-^cs or <:^ + aZ or c^al-\-ly OTc-\-ian; 
physio 4- ^ogr + jr or Zogr + ic? + aZ or Zor/ + ic ^-al + ly or ^ogr 
+ ist or gnom{gnomon, interpreter) + ^ oy gnom + ist. 

Scop, {scept)^ from sJcopos^ a watcher , a spy. 

Scop{e) ; epi-{-sco2) + acy or al or al+ianov ate; (from 
epis copies comes the A.-S. hi + shop, and from this^ hi -\- shop 
+ ricj arch -\- 1)1 + shoj) ; arch + M + sJioj) + ric) ; Tcal{kalos, 
beautiful) 4- eicZo [eidos^ torm) , micro {mihros, small), stetho 
{stethos, breast), stereo{stereos, solid) +«coi>(e) ; micro + 
scop + ic or ic + al ; scept + ic or ic + aZ or ic 4- is//i. 

a]\TtLO-saxox boots. 

Lessok XLIV. 

Bear, bier, bar, bur, from heran^ to carry. 

Bear; bear + able or er or ing ; for, over + hear ; for, 
over + bear-\-ing ; for -\-bear + ance ; bier;' bar{Y)+ow ;^ 

bur + d + en or d + en + some. 

Helps for the Pupil.— What is borne on a ^bier ? What on a 

2 barrow ? 



Word-Building. 203 

Bit, bait, from bitan^ to bite. 

Bit; bit{e) ; hit + er or ing ; bit{t)+er or er-\-ly or er-\- 
ness or er + s or 6r + sweet ; bait. 

Brin, brim, bran, brun, brown, burn, from brinnan or 
byrnan^ to be on fire, to burn. 

Brin -}- d -\- ed or d -{- le -{- d or y or (e) ; brim + stone ; bran 
+ d or d-]-ed^ or d-\-y ; bran (bran + c?) + new ; ^ brun H- 1 ^ 
or e^^e; brown ;^ brown + isJi; brtiin ; burn; burn + er 

or ish or isA + ^r or ^ or ed. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ^Branded, by burning. ^ Bran new, fresh as 
a burning brand, ^ Brunt, the place in battle where the fight rages 
hottest. * Brown, a burnt color. 

Far, fer, for, from far an ^ to ^o trayel. 

Far{e) ; /ar(e)+well; field, thorough (through), wel + 
far{e) ; fer-\-7y or ry + man or ry + boat ; for + d or <:/ + 

Orav, grov, groov, from grafan^ to di^, to cut. 

Grav{e) ; grav 4- ^r or e?^ or ing ; en + grav + er or m^ or 
(e) ; grov{e) ; groov{e). 

Hal, hail, beal, hoi, (w)hol, from hdl^ sound. 

IIal{e) ; hal {!)-{- oio ^ or ow + 7nas or o to -{-e'en ; was { = 
ivces, he) + sail{=^hdl) ; hail ; heal-{-th or tli-Vy or th + i-{- 
ly or th-\-i-\- ness or ?fA 4-/?^? or th -hftil + /y or tJi -\-ful + ^e^^ / 
hol^-y'^ or i + ^2655 or ^ + Zj^ or ^ + day or (l)y + hock ; {hal-\- 
i + but ^— /loZ + ^'-l-but) ; (w)/i.o^(e) ; (w)hol-\-ly ; {w)hol{e) 
4- so7ne or some + ?2^55 or some + ly or sale. 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^ Hallow, to make - holy ; that is, spiritually 
sound. ^ Halibut, a fish eaten on holidays. 



204 The English Language, 

Shear, sliar, slior, §liir^ slier, scor, from sceraiij to cut, 
divide. 

Shear; shear + s or er or ling j shar{e) ; shar + er; 
shar (e) +h.oldeY : plow + s/i«r(e) ; ^ s7ior{e) ; s7ior{e) + less ; 
s7iir{e) ; ' shir (e) -{-town ; sher{=zs7iir) -{-ifl{ = TeeYe) ; i^of -f 
s/ier + d ; scor ( e) / 

Helps for the Pupil. — A ^ ploivsJiare cuts off the slice called furrow, 
"^ Shire, the old English division of land, noiv s^ county. ^ Score — to 
mark twenty, a deep notch was cut. 

Shoot, shot, scot, sheet, shut, from sceotan^ to throw. 

S7ioot; s7ioot-\-er or i?ig j off+s7ioot ; s7iot ; scot + tree ;^ 
sheet + ing or anchor or lightning ; s7iut ; s7iut{i) -h er or le 
or /6' + cock. 

Helps for the Pupil. — '^Scot free, exempt from paying or shooting 
something into the general fund. 

Stick, stak, steak, stock, stuck, stitch, from stician^ 
to cling, adhere ; and a probable stecan^ to pierce, stab. 

Stic7{^ ; ^ stic7c-\-g or i + ness ; sta7t{e) ; steaTc ; ^ stocTc / ^ 
stock + y or ish or still or yard or jobber or holder or broker 
or dove or exchange ; stocTc + .s^ ; ^ stuc7i y stitc7i ; stitch + ing 

or er. 

Helps for the Pupil.— ^/S'^i'cA.'^to cleave=to stabr=a branch. - Steak, 
meat on the end of a stick to be cooked. ^ >S^oc^'=part of a gun^capi- 
tal= public funds = stump of a tree = family. * Stocks, for the feet, for 
the building of ships. 

Trow, tro, tru, from treotve^ true. 

Troiv ; tro + th or th + plight ; he + tro + ^A or th + etZ ; 

tru{(6)\ tru-\-lij or i'^m or th-^-ful or th+ful + ly or th-^ful 
'\-ness or s^ or st-\-er or st-\-ee or st^-ful or st-\-ful + ly or 



Word-Building. 205 

,9^ +fitl 4- ness or st-\-y or st -\-i-\-ly or st-\-i-\- ness or st + 
worthy-;?/; mis-]-trii-\-st or st-\-fuL 

l¥it, wis, from wit an ^ to know. 

TFi^/ to wit ; ivit + less or less -\- ness or /?*??.^; 1^*^(1) +2^ 
or ^ + ?^ or ^ + ness or ^ 4- c + i^'m ; wis{e) ; wis{e) + /^ ; *ris 

To ^/i-e Teacher and the Pnpil. — To illustrate the employ- 
ment of words formed from roots, we give below a few extracts from 
modern authors. Almost all of the words in italics are analyzed in the 
preceding pages ; the few not found there the pupil can now resolve 
without help from us. 

Direction, — Resolve into their elements the words italicized below, 
naming each root and the prefixes and suffixes in combination with it, 
and give the meaning of the compounds. 

' * He finds that very many of the native monosyllables are mere deter- 
minatives, particles, auxiliaries, and relatives ; and he can hardly fail 
to infer that all the intellectual part of our speech, all that concerns 
our highest spiritual and temporal interests, is of alien birth, and that 
only the merest machinery of grammar has been derived from a native 
source. Further study would teach him that he had overrated the 
importance and relative amount of the foreign ingredierits ; that many 
of our seemirigly insignificant and harharous consonantal monosyllables 
are pregnant with the mightiest thoughts and alive with the deepest 
feeling ; that the language of the purposes and the affections, of the 
will and of the heart, is genuine English-born ; that the dialect of 
the market and the fireside is Anglo-Saxon ; that the vocabulary of the 
most impressive and effective pulpit orators has been almost wholly 
drawn from the same pure source ; that the advocate who would con- 
vince the technical judge or dazzle and confuse the jury speaks Latin ; 
while he who would touch the better sensibilities of his audience or 
rouse the multitude to vigorous action chooses his words from the 
native speech of our ancient fatherland ; that the domestic tongue is 
the language of passion and persuasion ; the foreign, of authority or 
of rhetoric and debate ; that we may not only frame single sentences, but 



20G The English Language, 

speak for hours, without emjploying a single imported word ; Siiidflnalli/ 
that we possess the entire volume of revelation in the truest, clearest, 
aptest form in which human ingenuity has made it accessible to modern 
man, and yet with a vocabulary wherein, saving proper names and 
terms not in their nature translatable, scarce seven words in the hun- 
dred are derived from any foreign source.''^ — George P. Marsh. 

"Lord Brougham's opinion, that 'the Saxon pai^t of our English 
idiom is to be favored at the expense of that part which has so happily 
coalesced from the Latin and Greek,' he puts aside as 'resembling 
that restraint which some metrical ivriters have imposed upon them- 
selves — of writing a long copy of verses from which some particular 
letter, or from each line of which some different letter, should be care- 
fully excluded.^ From various causes he himself makes an excessive 
use of Latinized phraseology. 

His sentences are stately, elaborate, and crowded with qualifying 
clauses and parenthetical allusions to a degree unparalleled among 
modern writers. He maintained, and justly, that ' stateliness the most 
elaborate, in an absolute sense, is no fault at all, though it may be so 
in relation to a given subject, or to any subject under given circum- 
stances.^ Whether in his own practice he always conforms to cir- 
cumstances is a question that must be left to individual taste. There is 
a certain stateliness in his sentences under almost all circumstances — a 
stateliness arising from his habitual use of periodic suspensions. 

Explicitness of connection is the chief merit of He Quincey's para-' 
graphs. He cannot be said to observe any other principle. He is 
carried into violations of all the other i^ules by his inveterate habit of 
digression. Often, upon a mere casual suggestion, he branches off into 
a digression of several pages, sometimes even digressing from the 
subject of his first digression. 

The melody of De Quincey's prose is pre-eminently rich and stately. 
He takes rank with Milton as one of our greatest masters of stately 
cadence, as well as of sublime composition. If one may trust one's ear 
for a general impression, Milton's melody is sweeter and more varied ; 
but for magnificent effects, at least in prose, the palm must probably 
be assigned to De Quincey. In some of his grandest passages the 
language can be compared only to the swell and crash of an orchestra. " 
— William Minto. 

' ' Now, the word controversy, in its popular or its professional use, does 



Word- Building, 207 

not, I think, apply exclusively to civil disputes. It seems rather to 
have a wider and more flexible signification than the word case, which 
certainly i7icludes crimi^ial accusations. Judicial controversies are 
disputes, disagreements, differences between parties, respecting their 
legal rights and wrongs, wherein one controverts what the other alleges, 
and which are put in a form for judicial determination. If the Consti- 
tution had intended by the term cases to include civil and criminal 
proceedings, ... it would have employed some qualifying and 
explanatory epithet or expression to convey that limitation of the sense. 
There is no such broad and recognized difference of signification be- 
tween the words, standing alone, as to warrant the belief that the 
Constitution, distinguished always for its perspicuous, simple, and 
popular phraseology, could have expected or intended that they would 
be understood in so fine, far-sought, and yet so momentous, a dive'.'sity 
of signification. 

Presuming that they may be more exposed, somewhat, to be disturbed 
and darkened by sympathy with local passion and excitation, with the 
pride and anger and short-lived and circumscribed emotions that con- 
vulse a stoAe without sending a pulsation beyond its borders ; . . . 
presuming that they may be, by possibility, less profoundly impressed 
with the responsibilities attendant upon bringing on, by a judicial 
decision, a war which their State would not have to sustain and which 
the nation would ; proceeding upon the obvious principle of common 
sense and common justice, that the government which must answer, by 
its treasure and its blood, for a verdict or a judgment, ought to have 
the right to give the verdict and render the judgment — upon this 
policy, and on these reasons, it was that the Constitution has enabled 
Congress to withdraw from the State courts and give to yours the 
ultimate determination of this kind of case. " — Rufus Choate. 

'' Those who have had little experience in voluminous residmg, pursued 
for weeks, would scarcely imagine how much of downright physical 
exhaustion is produced by what is technically called the periodic style 
of writing. It is not the length, the paralytic flux of words ; it is not 
even the cumbrous involution of parts within parts, separately con- 
sidered, that bears so heavily upon the attention. It is the suspense, 
the holding-on, of the mind until what is called the apodosis, or coming 
round, of the sentence commences; this it is which wears out the faculty 
of attention. A sentence, for example, begins with a series of ifs; 



208 Tlie English Language, 

perhaps a dozen lines are occupied with expanding the co7iditions under 
which something is affirmed or denied. Here you cannot dismiss and 
liave done with the ideas as you go along ; all is hypothetic, all is 
<suspended in air. The conditions are not fully to be understood until 
3^ou are acquainted with the dependency ; you must give a separate 
attention to each clause of this complex hypothesis ; and yet, having 
done that, you have done nothing at all ; for you must exercise a 
reacting attention through the corresponding latter section^ in order to 
follow out its relations to all parts of the hypothesis which sustained it. 
In fact, under the rude, yet also artificial, character of newspaper style, 
each separate monster period is a vast arch, which, not receiving its Icey- 
stone, not being locked into self-supporting cohesion, until you nearly 
reach its close, imposes, of necessity, upon the unhappy reader all the 
onus of its ponderous weight through the main process of its construc- 
tion. The continued repetition of so Atlantean an effort soon over- 
whelms the patience of any reader, and establishes at length that 
habitual feeling which causes him to shrink from the speculations of 
journalists, or to adopt a worse habit than absolute neglect, which we 
shall notice immediately.'' — Tliomas I)e Quincey. 

"A nearer approach to exact retribution is certainly found in the 
remaining sanction — the favor and disfavor of mankind. The spec- 
tators of our conduct, morally constituted like ourselves, and looking 
at it from an impartial point of view, seem likely to be affected by it 
truly, and to judge it as would our own uncorrupted conscience ; so 
that their sentiment may be expected to rectify the distortions of our 
own, and place us under the rule of perfect equity. How little this 
abstract statement corresponds with the facts of individual experience 
is obvious on the slightest reflection. It is true only under conditions 
that cannot be realized; viz., that some of our contemporaries have 
faultless moral insight smd Judgment ; that- our actions are performed in 
no presence but theirs ; and that we are dejjendent for our peace of mind 
on their approval. Wherever such conditions prevail, there must 
already be a moral consensus so complete that the very need could 
scarce arise for compressing the individual conscience into coincidence 
with the socmZ ; and the court of public opinion, if opened, would only 
find an empty calendar. It is no such ideal tribunal before which we 
are actually brought. The critics who think it worth while to pro- 
nounce upon our behavior are immediate neighbors, be they friends or 



Word-Bitilding. 209 

enemies -; and they alone it is whose feelings towards us constitute an 
important element in our well-being ; if we can stand well with them, 
why should we trouble ourselves about imaginary observers, whose 
applause is inaudible, and whose frowns we never see ? What, then, is 
the law by which a man's associates will judge him ? The average 
standard of purity, of disinterestedness, of elevation, on which they 
have tacitly settled as contenting them ; everything allowed by this will 
be held permissible ; everything transcending it will be held eccentric ; 
and w^hether he drops below or rises above the established line, he will 
equally feel the smart of social persecution.'" — James Martineau. 



210 



The Englisli Language, 



LATIN PREFIXES. 



ah {a 9 ahs) — 


from, away 


du (duo) 


= two. 




from. 


ex (a, e, ec, ef, 




* ad (a^ ac^ af, 




es, (e) s) 


= out of, from. 


ag, alj am, 




extra 


= beyond, with. 


an, ap, ar, 






out. 


as, at) = 


to, against. 


in {en, i, it. 




anibi {arnb. 




im, ir) 


= not. 


am, an) — 


around, on all 


in { ant, an, 






sides. 


em., en, il. 




ante {an) = 


before. 


im, ir) 


— in, into, on, 


bene = 


well. 




upon. 


hi (bin, bis) = 


two, twice. 


inter {enter, 




circuni (circu) = 


abound, 


Intel) 


= among, be- 




around. 




tween. 


contra {con' 




intro 


— within. 


tro, coun- 




jicxta 


= near to. 


ter) — 


against. 


male (fual) 


= badly, evil, 


cum {co, col. 






or ill. 


com^, con^ 




ne, nee { = ne 




cor, coun) = 


with, to- 


+ que, neg) 


= not. 




gether, or 


non { = ?ie + 






adds force. 


unum) 


= not, not one. 


de 


away, down, 


ob (o, oc, of, 






f r ora , or 


op, OS, oib)s) 


= against, upon. 




adds force. 


pen (pcene) 


= almost. 


(lis {de, des. 




per {par, pel^ 




di, dif) = 


apart, not, op- 


pit) 


— through. 




posite act. 


post 


= after. 



* For the sake of euphony the last letter of the prefix is often 
changed to the first letter of the root, or is dropped. 



Word-Building. 



211 



pre 


=: before. 


sub {sou, 


sue, 


prefer 


" past, beyond. 


suf. 


sug, 


pro 


{prod, 


sum. 


sup. 


prof, 


vol, 


sur^ sus) =z under, from 


por, 


pur, 




below. 


pru) 


— for, forth, 


subter 


= under. 




forwards. 


super {sur) = over, above, 


re (red) 


r= again, back, 




beyond. 




against, or 


trans {tran, 




o pposite 


tra, tres) = b e y o n d , 




act. 




across. 


retro 


= backward. 




through. 


se (sed) 


= away, from. 


tri {tre) 


= three, thrice. 


semi 


= half. 


ultra 


= beyond. 


sine 


== without. 


vice {vis) 


= in place of. 


ANGLO-SAXON, OR ENOLISH, 


PREFIXES. 


a 


= at, in, on, or adds force. 


mis 


~ wrong, wrongly. 


after 


= behind. 


never 


= not ever. 


all {al) 


=: wholly. 


off 


= from. 


he 


=: to make, cause, by. 


out 


— beyond. 


for 


= against, not, or adds 


over 


— above, in excess. 




force. 


to 


= at, the, this. 


fore 


= before, in front. 


un 


— not, opposite act in 


forth 


= forward. 




verbs. 


full 


= completely. 


under 


= beneath. 


gain 


— against. 


tvell {wel) 


= rightly. 


in (im) 


= in, into, within ; some- 


with 


= against, from. 




times, intensive. 




back. 




GRSSK F 


REFIXES. 




amphi 


= on both sides. 


apo {ap) 


= from. 


an (a) 


= not. 


cata {cat) 


=r down. 


ana 


= again, back, 


di {dis) 


— twice, two. 




through. 


dia {di) 


— through. 


anti {ant) = against. 


dys 


= bad, ill. 



312 



Tlie English Language. 



ec {ex) 


— from, out of. 


mono {mon) 


= alone, one 


en {em) 


= in, on. 


para {par) 


= beside. 


epi {ep) 


= upon. 


peri 


= around. 


eu {ev) 


= well. 


poly 


= many. 


hemi 


= half. 


pro 


= before. 


hyper 


= over. 


2)seiido 


= false. 


hypo {hyp) 


— under. 


syn {sylf sym^ 




meta {met) 


= beyond, after, 
change. 


sys, sy) 


= with. 



LATIN SUFFIXES. 

The part of speech formed by the aid of the suffix is indicated by 
the letter placed before it. — ?i. =noun, r. =verb, a. ^adjective, ad,= 
adverb. 

Many of these suffixes are much changed in form and in meaning 
by long sojourn in the French language. 



aable (abilf 




a nan, ain, 


ablf 


ble, 




ane, ean, 


hi); 


ible 




ian = pertaining to ; 


{ibil, 


ibl, 




one who. 


Ml, hi] 


= 


able to be, fit to 


nance, ancy 






be, causing. 


{anc) = state of being ; 


aaceoiis 


} 




act of. 


acioiiii 


i rr 


having the qual- 


nand, end = L. fut. part. 






ity of, full of. 


ending. 


nacy 


= 


: state or quality 


ant See ent. 






of being. 


aar = pertaining to. 


nad. 




See at. 


a nary {ari) «/•= belonging to ; 


nage 


— 


-- state of being ; 


one wlio ; place where. 






act of ; that 


n tat, it, p. part, ending ; ending 






which ; a col- 


of L. n. stem also. 






lection of. 


« n vate, {at)=hsL\mg ; one who ; 


fl nal, el, 


{I) 


= pertaining to ; 


to make. 






the act of. 


ble. See able. 



Word-Buildi7ig, 



213 



nbulum^ hule^ {but) Me=: 

place ; that which or by which. 

nculum^ cule^ {cul)^ cle, cher 
= place; that which or by 
which. 

ce. See acy. 

ncle^ celf cule^ (ct^^)= little (dim- 
inutives). 

cy. See acy. 

nee=one to whom. 

^eer. See second er, below. 

elf eel. See aL 

nence^ {efic)^ ency—sta.te of be- 
ing. 

^ens— of, belonging to. 

n aent—one who ; that which ; 
being or ing. 

neVf (r), eeVf ier ^=0110 who. 

'ver (frequentative or causative). 

aern^ot, belonging to. 

nery^ ry, er=: place where ; state 
of being ; collection ; art of. 

vesc—to grow to or become. 

ness denotes female agent. 

«esgife= somewhat, like. 

«68^=:of, belonging to. 

(^estr— of, belonging to. 

f^ette^ 6^= little (diminutive). 

ey. See y. 

ihle. See able. 

« i^iCf ica^= pertaining to ; made 
of ; one who. 

wice= state or quality of being ; 
thing that. 

«ic^=quality, pertaining to. 

ie7\ See eer. 

Hie 9 (i^)=able to be ; relating to, 



Hne^ Cm) = belonging to ; n. end- 
ing also. 

nion=Sict of; state of being; that 
which. 

<^igi^e= belonging to. 

ish. See esc. 

n aite=: one who ; being. 

Hty^ (ty)= state or quality of be- 
ing. 

n aive^ {iv)=one who ; that which ; 
having power or quality. 

nioCf denotes a female. 

wix=that which. [give. 

Hze^ {iz)f ise, (is) = to make, to 

^^6^ (l) (frequentative). 

dle^ i\l). See al, el. 

^^ei^tce= abundance of. 

«Zen^= abounding in. 

f^inen=thsit acted upon. 

anient =stsite of being ; act of ; 
that which. 

nmony, (a^oni)= state of being; 
that which ; that derived from. 

a /2ocr=: pertaining to. 

noUf oofif iofi—one who. 

on. See ion. 

nor=one who ; that which, 

^or, oier=:state or quality of be- 
ing; place where. 

anory^ (or?*) = relating to; place 
where ; thing which. 

('^osef (os)f ous=tiil\ of, having. 

not=zone who. 

nr=er or or=one who. 

rioc denotes female agent. 

ry. See ery. 

siofif son. See ton. 



214 



The English Language. 



of* /li6= belonging to. 

Hon, See ion. 

HudCf {tudf ude)=stsLte of be 

ing. 
ty. See ity. 
aul= prone to. 

ANGLO-SAXON, OR ENGLISH, SUFFIXES. 



niile^ iil=\itt\e (diminutives). 
mii^e^ (iir) = stnte or act of : that 

which. 
«?«r/i=:: belonging to. 
ny^ (i) estate of being; that which. 



?iar= one who. 
nard— one who. 

^^doin=iitsite of being; domain of. 
'^'ecZ, d^ f=past tense and past 

par. ending. 
net— that which or by which, 
rt ?) ?ze/t=made of ; to make ; past 

par. little (diminutive). 
7ier=one who; that which. 
«er=more (comparative degree). 
'^er (frequentative or causative). 
er (adjective ending), 
aesf =most (superlative degree). 
af III = full of, causiBg. 
nJieadf hood— st'dte or quality of 

being. 
^'/^^ 2/=liti:le (diniinutives). 
n V aiug=the act ; continuing. 
aris/i= somewhat; like; to make. 
'ikin— little (diminutive). 
^le^ denotes frequent action. 
nle=thait which. 
«;6ss= without. 



n^ef= little (diminutive), 
^^^ingr— little (diminutive). 
aadly^ (li^ y)=like, manner. 
^'nes«= state or quality of being. 
nock— little (diminutive). 
r6or= one who, that which. 
votv= to make. 
now=hj which. 
n vs or es the plu. ending of nouns 

and the ending of 3d per. sing. 

of verbs. 
^'8 or ^ denotes possessive case. 
^8/i^p estate of, office of. 
«80W^e=full of, causing, 
^sf— state of being. 
^ister =one who. 
nth) f= state of being. 
(^^iva7'd^ tvar'ds=diireQi\on of. 
(if^wise = manner. 
ny. See ie. 
ay ={u\l of, having. 
a ady. See ly. 



GREEK 

aac= pertaining to. 

nef =one who. 

aniCf tca^:= pertaining to : made 

of ; one who. 
HCf ics=: science of. 



SUFFIXES. 

^'ise^ ize=to make; to give. 
nism^stdite of being; doctrine. 
nist =one who. 
^t/= state of being. 



Word-Buildmg, 



215 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Vowels and Consonants. 
DEFINITION.— A Vowel is a letter that stands for a free, open 
sound of the voice. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. 

TT is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a 
vowel sound ; as, new, now ; and j/ is a vowel when it has the sound of i ; 
as, hy, duty^ hoy. W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word 
or a syllable ; as, wet, yet. 

DEFINITION. — A Consonant is a letter that stands for a sound 
made by the obstructed voice or the obstructed breath.* 

The consonants are the letters of the alphabet not named above as 
vowels. 

Sounds of the Vowels. 

Diacritical marh^ used in Webster's Dictionary, 



1. a, long, in hate. 

2. a, short, in hat. 
8. a, Italian, in far. 

4. a, hroad, in all. 

5. a, intermediate, in ask. 

6. a, long he fore r, in care. 

1. e, long, in me. 

2. e, short, in met. 

1. i, long, in pine. 

2, i, short, in pin. 



1. 5, long, in note. 

2. b, short, in not. 

3. o (like long oo) in do. 

1. % long, in tube. 

2. ii, short, in tiib. 

3. u (like short oo) in pulL 

4. u (before r) in fur. 

oi and oy (unmarked = at) in oil, 

toy. 
ou and ow (unmarked = sloo) in 

out, now. 



* ff, which represents a mere forcible breathing, is an exception. 



216 



The Englisli Language, 



One letter used for another. 



6 = a, as in form. 

o (unmarked) = u, as in -worm. 

oo = g, as m inc5bn. 

06 =: u, as in wobL 

u = p, as in rude. 

y = T, as in fly. 

y = 1, as in myth. 



a = 6, as in what. 

^ = a, as in wh^re, heir. 

e = a, as in eight, 

e = u (nearly), as in her. 

1 =r e, as in police. 

1 ::= u (nearly), as in sir. 

6 = u, as in done. 

o = Uj as in "wolf. 

Remarks. — d is between a and d. d represents the first, or ''radi- 
cal," part of a, touched lightly, without the "Tanish," or e sound, a 
is nearly equivalent to e prolonged before r. 

u is between ib and e. Some careful speakers discriminate between tl, 
(= o in worm) and e (= i), making the former a modification of u and 
the latter a modification of ^. 

In the '* International Dictionary" (the latest ''Webster"), a, e, 
^, o, u, represent the long sounds as modified in syllables without 
accent; e.g., senate^ event, idea, obey, unite. The " International " 
often respells instead of using diacritical marks. 

When one vowel of a diphthong is marked, the other is silent. 

Diacritical marks used in Worcester's Dictionary^ 



a in hate, 
a in hat. 
a in far. 
a in all. 
a in ask. 
k in care. 

e in me. 
e in met. 

i in pine, 
i in pin. 



o in note. 
o in not. 
6 in do. 

u in tube, 
n in tub. 
ii in puU. 
u in fur. 

61, 6y in oil, toy. 
6u, 6w in out, now. 



Word-Biiilding. 



217 



% in where. 
§ in her. 
i in police. 
i in sir. 
6 in done. 



o in lorm. 
66 in moon, 
u in rude. 
y in fly. 
y in myth- 



Sounds of the Consonants. 

Explanation. — The two classes of consonants are arranged below in 
separate columns. Those in "1" are called vocal consonants {voice 
consonants), and those in " 2 " are called aspirates {breath consonants). 

The letters with dots between them form pairs. Give the sound of 
the first letter of any pair, and you will find that, as the voice stops, 
the vanishing sound will be the sound of the other letter. The tongue, 
teeth, lips, and palate are in the same position for both, the only differ- 
ence being that in one there is voice, and in the other only a whisper^ 



1. 

Vocal Consonants. 

1) 


2. 
Aspirates 

P 

. 1 

k 


1. 
Vocal Consonants. 

r 


2. 

Aspirates. 


d. . . 

g 


th (in thine). 

\ 

w 


(th in thin) 

f 




h 

ch 




J 

1 

m 


y 




z (in zone). . . 
z (in azure), . 

the columns above. C 


s 

sh 


n 






C, q, and x are 


not found in 


=::= k: or s; q — Ic ; 



X = k s or gz. 



Diacritical marks — Webster, 



9, soft (= s), in 9ent. 
■e, hard (= k), in-eall. 
ch (unmarked) in child. 
9h, soft (= sh), in 9haise. 
-ch, hard (= k), in-chorus. 
g , hardy in get. 
g, soft (= i), in gem. 



s, sharp (unmarked), in same. 

§, soft{= z), in haj. 

th, sharp (unmarked), in thin. 

-^ soft or vocaL in-this. 

n (= ng) in ink. 

5 (= gz) in eipst. 



218 The English Language, 

Diacritical marks — Worcester. 



q in cent. 

jO, 5 {or jb) in call, 
ch (unmarked) in child. 
Qh in chaise. 

-GH, 5h (or jsh) in chorus. 
j&, \ in get. 



G, g in gem. 

s in has. 

th (unmarked) in thin. 

TH th in this. 

:k in exist. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE I.— Final e is dropped before a suffix be^innin^ with a 
Towel \ as, fine, finer ; love, loiing. 

Exceptions. — Words ending in ce and ge retain e before able and 
ous to keep c and g soft ; as, peaceable, changeable, courageous. Words 
in oe and ee retain the e unless the suffix begins with e ; as, hoeing, 
seeing. 

RULE IL— I^ after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not 
beginning with i ; as, witty, wittier ; dry, dried. 

Exception. — Y does not change before 's ; as, enemy'' s. 

RULE ni.— In monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, a final consonant after a single Towel doubles before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hot, hotter ; begin, beginning. 

Exceptions. — The final consonant is not doubled when, in the deriv- 
ative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive ; as, 
refer' , reference. But we have excel' , ex'cellent, ex'cellence, X, k, 
and V are never doubled. 

Remark. — To the Rules above (and inferences from them) there are 
a few other exceptions ; as, dyeing (coloring), singeing, tingeing, mileage, 
awful, wholly, judgment, acknowledgment; slyly, dryness, piteovs; 
gases, trcmsferable, humbugged, crystallize, cancellation. 



INDEX. 

PAGE 

/ Anglo-Saxon Declension of 36 

Adjective, The •< Coinp. in er and est 36-39 

( Comp. by Adverbs. 37 

Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain. . . , 4-6 

Anglo-Saxon Literature 10 

Anglo-Saxon Words in the Vocabulary 79-85 

Anglo-Saxon Words in Use 85-89 

I First Period "7, 8 

Celtic in English \ Second Period 19, 20 

( Third Period 20 

Celts, The 3 

Classification of Languages 1-3 

Coalescence of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman-French 14-18 

Danelagh 7 

Danish Conquest of Britain 6,7 

Dialects in English. . . , 76-78 

English, The— The New Tongue 18 

Englishman's (The) Debt to his Ancestry ....... 13 

Greek, Hebrew, and the Modern Languages in English 21-23 

J. First Period 8 

-r ^. . t:, t t I Second Period 8, 9 

LatmmEnghsh ^^.^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^ ^^ 

l Fourth Period 20, 21 

Latin Words in the Vocabulary now 79-85 

Latin Words in Use now 85-89 

Norman Conquest 12, 13 

r Changes in the Vowels of Endings and Drop- 
Noun Th \ P^^^ ^"^ Vowels and Consonants 29-31 

I Exceptions to these Changes 31-34 

^ Grammatical Gender 34, 35 

r The Alphabetic Characters 25 

Orthographical Changes \ The Sounds of Letters 25-28 

(The Spelling 26-28 

Prefixes and Sufhxes 209-213 



220 



Index. 



1. Adjective Pronouns — 

All and Both 

Any One Else's or Any One's Else. 

Each Other and One Another 

Either and Neither 

None 

One 

Some 

The One, The Other 

Pronoun, The \ 2. Interrogative Pronouns — 

I Who, Which, and WTiat 

3. Personal Pronouns — 

Its 

Ours, Tours , Hers, and Theirs. . . . 

Self 

Thou and You 

Ye and You 

4. Relative Pronouns — 
Wlio, Which, What, and That 



Romans in Britain. 



. -r^ , . , ( First Period . . . 
Scandinavian m English ■{ ^ j -o • ^ 
( becond Period. 



Synonyms 



f: 



Verb, The 



Anglo-Saxon Gerund 

Compound Tenses -_ 

Conjugations, Strong and Weak 

Do 

Double Preterite Forms 

Future Tense. , , . 

Loss of Strong Verbs , 

Passive Voice . . , 

Passive, Expressing Continuance 

Prefix ge 

Present and Past Tenses 

Progressive Form 

Vocabulary, Growth of 

i Anglo-Saxon Roots. . , 

Word-Building \ Greek Roots 164-166, 

' Latin Roots 119-164, 

Words. Meaning Narrows. Widens , , 



51 

53, 54 

54, 55 

55, 56 
56 

52, 53 
51 
53 

45, 46 

41, 42 
43, 44 

44 
43 

42, 43 

46-50 

3, 4 

9, 10 

20 

90-113 
64 

66, 67 
57-59 

68, 69 
64 

65, 66 
59, 60 

69, 70 
70-72 

65 
60-65 

67, 68 
115-118 
202-205 
200-202 
166-200 

90 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 243 774 6 ^ 



